Sacrament of marriage Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Sacrament of marriage - Essay Example This concerns the establishment of the relations among the people involved in the union, as well as, the attribution of the relationship to the purpose of God in the individual lives of the people2. Thus, from the catholic cannons, marriage is a sacrament between baptized people joined in union at the confines of the church doctrines. It constitutes the unbreakable bond of love between Christ and the people. Thus, like the other sacraments, the sacrament of marriage is a symbol to reveal the Lord Jesus, facilitate the divine life, and love to the people. The twentieth century saw the evolution of the theology of marriage within the developments of the church, begging with the incorporations established by Pope Pius XI in 930, and passing through to the Second Vatican Council and Pope Paul VI. The culmination was the unfolding of the writings on the insights of Pope John Paul II. The church drifted from the juridical presentation of marriage to adopt church pronouncements that personalized the duties and rights of marriage, to present it as a presentation for availing conjugal love between the spouses3. The Vatican and Cannon Law explains the definition of marriage as an intimate, exclusive, indissoluble communion of love and life shared by man and woman as a fulfillment to the design established by the Creator of their own good and procreation. This covenant entails joining two baptized persons, raising the dignity of the sacrament. Historical development ranges back to the initial establishments about the promiscuity of man, which instituted the need to develop religious cannons to streamline the practice of marriage4. The responsibilities associated also contributed to the establishment of the divine union, as practice of monogamy became the preaching from the church5. Thus, current establishments and practices in the sacrament of marriage have evolved

Spirituality and Art Essay Example for Free

Spirituality and Art Essay â€Å"Spirituality is such a vibrant and integral part of our lives that even our changing times and all the apparent obstacles have not stifled the powerful partnership of spirituality and art in the modern era† Lynn M. Herbert. This essay will assess and discuss three contemporary artists that address the idea or concept of ‘spirituality’ in their work. Spirituality is a term that lacks certain defiance or a definitive definition, although social scientists have defined spirituality as the search for ‘the scared’; which is broadly defined as that which is set apart from the ordinary. The term has changed throughout modern day society that it can now be classes as a separate entity from religion itself. Three key contemporary artists that use their works to convey the message of spirituality are; Alex Grey- The Artists Hand, 1997, oil on wood, 1616 inches; H. R Giger The Spell I, 1973, Acrylic, ink on wood 240x280cm and Cosima Lukashevich – The Oracle, 2009, Painting, Pastel on canvas 16 x 21. 9 inches. Each one of these three pieces has a different take on what the artist personally believes spirituality is. Alex Grey is that of a visionary artist best known for his depictions of the human body. The multiple layers of reality, revealing the complex integration of body, mind, and spirit has become his trademark in the 90’s. His paintings have been featured on various covers of albums and have been exhibited throughout the world. (Hagerty, 2006) The artist’s hand, 1997, holds a powerful instrument, here symbolized by a â€Å"Vajra brush,† is a means to awaken people to their own essence through the light of higher power. The history of art is an expression of universal creativity that invisibly surrounds and supports every creative action. The Vajra is a spiritual device, a thunderbolt scepter owned by the Hindu god Indra and adopted by the Buddhist sages as a symbol of the diamond-like clarity and brilliance of the mind’s true nature. (Alex Grey) This is a key point in Greys piece along with his signature of the human body. The Artists Hand shows the layers of a human body each layer showing a new represtation of it. The vajra has ightning potruding from it and the figureines in the background are all that of superstious being either being a direct decent of a religion or an ancient civilization. The incorporation of the eye is one that with background research tells of a clarity to the artists beliefs. Grey’s interpreataion of spirituality in which his pieces show that his definition comes from the human body and key chakra elements. To Grey it seems that spirituality comes from within the human body rather then of a religious origin. Giger however uses his interpretation of the relationships that the body has, The Spell I (1973) by H.  R. Giger shows the relationship between man and machine. Through Giger’s artwork the idea of Biomechanics is understood to bring the human structure to the next level, allowing evolution to take place with the existing aid of machinery. The visuals presented in Giger’s artwork tell the story of how humankind is affected by its surroundings and what we take for granted. This is Giger’s idea of our future and if we keep relying on a machinery to complete our tasks we will become one with machine living in a cultureless society. Mark, 1982) Unlike Grey, Gigers use of the human body is more conceptual in a mechanical way; he utilizes the concept of the matrix in his piece alonlg with key spirituality symbols like the horned female and the skull. Even though futruistic his take on spirituality is that of a symbolic method. Cosima Lukashevich is a well-rounded spiritual artist who is said to be artist of the world – who unlike Giger and Grey is inspired by life and the cultural heritage and ancient symbols. Her pieces are of less refinance and are that of an expletory piece. Lukashevich channels her spirituality through nature and meditation; her piece uses ancient symbols and meanings. Her interpretation of The Oracle, 2009, is that of a dreamlike appearance. Her use of position allows the viewer to focus of the clarity of the eyes in the piece. The use of her medium is crucial in this piece and so is the symbolic meaning behind it. Comparing this piece to Giger’s and Grey’s it is clear that it is more earthy then the two others. Grey and Giger have a precision to their pieces that Lukashevich does not capture however each artist expresses in their own way what they think spirituality is. Giger and Grey even though having slight common grounds take very different paths with their concepts. The use of the human body has been a key feature throughout each of these three pieces and shows that the human body is a crucial piece in the journey through spirituality. Spirituality is still a term that lacks certain defiance or a definitive definition, although social scientists have tried to define spirituality as the search for ‘the scared’; which is broadly defined as that which is set apart from the ordinary. The term itself still remains broadly defined; however you may choose to argue the points that of the artists, Alex Grey, H. R Giger and Cosima Lukashevich each convey through their works as the definition. Each has tried to convey their own definition of spirituality though their own works. But at the end of the day spirituality is something that one defines within themselves through their beliefs, attitudes and values; it is something that will remain till the end of time as an undefined term that through various artistic channels many try to seek its true origins. Artists at the dawn of the 21st Century have had the unique opportunity to create a universal spiritual art. This art will be born from visions of sacred archetypes common to all mystic paths. The spirit of the times will choose artists sufficiently prepared for this task. The challenge to an artist today is integrating the vast visual legacy of human culture with their own deepest and highest personal insights, distilling that into works of art and making a living at it.

SWOT Analysis of the Football Association (FA)

SWOT Analysis of the Football Association (FA) This paper looks to produce a report that seeks to analyse the work of the Football Association (FA) in the context of an evaluation of the impact of its strategy regarding the advancement of the national game and its legitimacy as an organisation in England. This report provides a background to what is the FAs general remit and how this fits with sports strategic management emanating from the work of the UK government. This report then considers what the FA does and how this reflects its strategy for advancing the national game and its legitimacy as an organisation allowing all participants to enjoy the game and maximise their ability and evaluate where the problems lie around the FAs strategic management to date. This report seeks to evaluate the Football Associations (FAs) adjective of the advancement of football in England and the FAs legitimacy as an organisation in this country that serves to permit all those that wish to participate in the sport to enjoy it and maximise their ability through a SWOT analysis. First, this report looks to provide a background to the FAs work before analysing how this fits with the UK governments work with other organisations to achieve effective strategic management for then advancing the FAs aims through recognition of the opportunities for reform. This report then considers the FAs activities and how this reflects its strategy for advancing the national game and its legitimacy as an organisation through organisational management and evaluate the strengths of the organisation and where the problems lie and what threats they pose. Finally, this report will summarise the key points derived from this report regarding analysis of the FAs work in its strategy r egarding footballs advancement and its legitimacy as an organisation. Findings (a) Background What is the FA and what does it do? The FA has governed English association football since 1863 to oversee both the professional and amateur levels by sanctioning all domestic competitive football matches at the national level directly or local level indirectly through the fifty-five County Football Associations with a view to advancing the development of the sport and its legitimacy as an organisation in this country (The FA.com, 2010b). The FA also run eleven competitions including the FA Cup and appoints the manager of all twenty-four national football teams and has also developed and runs Wembley Stadium (The FA.com, 2010f). Additionally, the FA is a member of both the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) and the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) along with having a permanent seat upon the International Football Association Board (IFAB). Moreover, the FA bears responsibility for all national teams managements appointments along with the FA Cups organisation and having the power to se t and vary league rules since both the FA and the Football League (and the Premier League although not commercially affiliated) have the power to restrict the transfer of players and also take points away from clubs where they seriously contravene rules of the game (The FA.com, 2010a). (b) SWOT Analysis To better assess the activities of the FA in relation to its long-held policy objective of advancing the development of the sport and its legitimacy as an organisation in England it is necessary to utilise a SWOT analysis created by Albert Humphrey as a means of strategic planning to analyse the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (hence, SWOT) involved with the FAs work (Drejer, 2004). This kind of analysis involves identifying the internal and external factors that are favourable and unfavourable for the FA achieving the advancement of the development of football and its legitimacy as an organisation in England (Armstrong, 1982). This is in keeping with the fact that it has been recognised, for effective strategic management to be carried out by a body like the FA, that there is a need for clear planning, organising, leading and evaluating of both their actions and the resources that they have available to them with a view to advancing the development of the sport and its legitimacy as an organisation in England (Masteralexis, et al, 2009). Therefore, there is a need to evaluate the FAs activities and match them to the environment and its resource capabilities regarding the consideration of operational impacts in terms of expectations so as to then be able to further the FAs long term aims (Torkildsen, 2005). Then, it is also necessary to make a strategic choice through the generation and evaluation of all of the available options so as to then select a strategy for implementation through a set organisational structure that advances the FAs previously alluded to objectives (Parker, 2004). (i) Strengths In considering its organisational strengths, one of the FAs key strength is that it is responsible for both developing and regulating the sport without government involvement through effective organisational management accounting for the environment, the organisations resources and stakeholders expectations (The FA.com, 2010f). To this effect, a further strength of the FA is that, to achieve footballs advancement in England, the FA has a clear commitment to making football more accessible for all regardless of their race, religion, gender, sexuality, ability or background to maintain its market dominance through re-engineering, delayering and restructuring (The FA.com, 2010f). The FA is also able to call upon a significant level of funding illustrated by the fact that the Premier League has generated billions of pounds from Sky, sponsorship and spectators (Bower, 2007) whilst, more specifically, the new Wembley stadium has made a profit of  £229 million annually as an important sou rce of revenue for the FA they could reinvest in football (Wembley Stadium, 2010). This has served to mean that the FA is able to invest around  £60 million annually with around two-thirds of that being utilised at the grass-roots level so there are now around seven million people of all ages playing football in this country (The FA.com, 2010f). Additionally, in view of its desire to increase its legitimacy within the community, the FA has established a series of community projects to further its fundamental objective of advancing the sport and the legitimacy of the organisation in this regard. In total the FA have developed around 6,000 projects valued at over  £630 million to improve facilities along with a further  £4.5m having been invested in Womens football annually so there are now more than a million females involved annually (The FA.com, 2010c). By way of further illustration of the breadth of areas the FAs programmes cover, the FA Charity Programme has been developed to move significant funds to areas within society where it can play a beneficial role with notable partners including The Bobby Moore Fund (The FA.com, 2010c). Furthermore, the FA Hat-Trick Programme has been established to deliver Community Football Development workers to Englands most deprived communities whilst also removing barriers to particip ation for people from all ethnic backgrounds (Norfolk FA, 2010). Moreover, more than 700,000 children under the age of eleven have benefited from The FA Tesco Skills Programme (The FA.com, 2010e), whilst The FAs Respect Programme has improved behaviour and respect to reflect the need for social acceptance (The FA.com, 2010d). (ii) Weaknesses Having recognised the FAs strengths it is necessary to also consider its weaknesses as an organisation. To this effect, in the wake of the Premier Leagues creation in 1992, the FA has arguably lost some of its power of administration and regulation and become immersed in high finance and commercial planning but has been found to lack the professional expertise expected by professionals to its detriment (Bower, 2007). The reason for this is that, although the Premier League may have generated billions of pounds from Sky, sponsorship and spectators, the FAs management has been detrimentally impacted upon by a confused structure of organisation (Bower, 2007). As a result, the FA have proved somewhat stubborn regarding the possibility of reforming themselves with a view to preventing agents corruption, eliminating possible conflicts of interest among club owners and bringing about heightened controls of the ever-increasing prices and wages for players (Bower, 2007). Matters have then onl y been further exasperated by the ramifications of increased foreign ownership of professional football clubs domestically along with the ever-increasing escalation in the value of TV deals impacting upon the Premier League so that the FA now risks the prospect of there being a potential collapse and usurping of the FA by the Premier League (Bower, 2007). Such problems have then been only further exacerbated by the ongoing rise in foreign ownership from billionaire organisations all over the world only arguably serving to further strengthen the Premier League to the detriment of the rest of football that is governed by the FA throughout the hierarchy of the sport (Bower, 2007). (iii) Opportunities Despite the weaknesses that have been recognised with regard to the apparent threats to the FA from the Premier League and billionaire foreign investment, the FA has suggested a system of enforcement to impose a fit and proper test for potential club owners in the Premier League to achieve an effective balance between sporting needs and its commercial potential (Bower, 2007). At the same time, however, it is necessary for the FA to look to maintain its market dominance through re-engineering, delayering and restructuring from the top of the FA all the way down throughout its entire hierarchy (Bower, 2007). In addition, there remains scope for the FA to heighten its legitimacy through the use of community programmes like the the FA Charity Programme that has been developed to move significant funds to areas within society where it can play a beneficial role with notable partners including The Bobby Moore Fund (The FA.com, 2010c). Furthermore, more than 700,000 children under the age o f eleven have benefited from The FA Tesco Skills Programme (The FA.com, 2010e), whilst The FAs Respect Programme has improved behaviour and respect to reflect the need for social acceptance (The FA.com, 2010d). (iv) Threats As for threats to the FAs stated objective of achieving the advancement of the sport and its legitimacy in this country, the problem is that the Premier League will not concede control of its affairs to the FA to make more effective changes to the way in which football is administered and run in this country (Bower, 2007). This is because FA have proved to be somewhat stubborn in relation to the possibility of reforming themselves with a view to preventing agents corruption, eliminating possible conflicts of interest among club owners and bringing about heightened controls of the ever-increasing prices and wages for players (Bower, 2007). With this in mind, as a result of being somewhat outwitted by the Premier League and now foreign owners, the FA now seem to be somewhat powerless to get the new foreign owners to help with the development and sustainability of the sport domestically (Bower, 2007). This is because it has come to be understood that, if the FAs strategic management is weak, there is a risk the Premier league may take over the running of the domestic game so that the limited money trickling down to the grass roots (around  £60 million annually) would cease to the detriment of the advancement of the legitimacy of the organisation and the development of the sport (Bower, 2007). Conclusions What can be understood regarding the FA on the basis of this SWOT analysis? From the SWOT analysis that has been undertaken here, with a view to achieving the FAs objective of the advancement of football as a sport in England and its legitimacy as an organisation in this regard, the FA consistently seeks to advance best practices along with its legitimacy as an organisation to further the development of the sport (The FA.com, 2010f). This kind of analysis involves identifying the internal and external factors that are favourable and unfavourable for the FA achieving the advancement of the development of football and its legitimacy as an organisation in England (Armstrong, 1982). The reason for this is that the FA is seeking to achieve networking and support to further its stated aim through innovative policies in the manner already described to develop skills through an effective infrastructure that permits the establishment of a healthy community and regeneration (Parker, 2004). Therefore, as well as looking to administer football throughout its hierarchy, the FA can issue monetary fines, restrict the transfer of players and deduct points from clubs where they seriously contravene the rules put into place by the FA in matters of finance leading to administration or their failure to keep control of staff (The FA.com, 2010f). In addition, the FA also looks to invest around  £60 million annually in the sport with around two-thirds of that being utilised at the grass-roots level through its sponsorship and broadcasting partnerships so there are now around seven million people of all ages currently playing football (The FA.com, 2010f). At the same time, however, the FA has been subjected to some significant threats from the ongoing development of the Premier League to the detriment of those involved in the sport throughout the hierarchy what with increased sponsorship and billionaire foreign ownership so it has then fallen upon the FA to look to regulate the activities of the FA (Bower, 2007). The problem is that the Premier League is a separate body to the FA and does not consider itself wholly subject to either its administration or regulation to the detriment of the FAs objective of the advancement of football in England and its legitimacy as an organisation. Nevertheless, it remains arguable that the FA will retain a high degree of relevance within society because of the Premier League and, despite the risks to its funding, the FA continues to advance its legitimacy through its use of around 6,000 projects valued at over  £630 million to improve facilities throughout England (The FA.com, 2010c). This is in keeping with the fact that, for effective strategic management to be carried out by a body like the FA through its work, there is a need for planning, organising, leading and evaluating of both their actions and the resources that they have available to them with a view to advancing the development of the sport and its legitimacy as an organisation in England (Masteralexis, et al, 2009).

Dams :: essays research papers

Many people have already dammed a small stream using sticks and mud by the time they become adults. Humans have used dams since early civilization, because four-thousand years ago they became aware that floods and droughts affected their well-being and so they began to build dams to protect themselves from these effects.1 The basic principles of dams still apply today as they did before; a dam must prevent water from being passed. Since then, people have been continuing to build and perfect these structures, not knowing the full intensity of their side effects. The hindering effects of dams on humans and their environment heavily outweigh the beneficial ones. The paragraphs below will prove that the construction and presence of dams always has and will continue to leave devastating effects on the environment around them. Firstly, to understand the thesis people must know what dams are. A dam is a barrier built across a water course to hold back or control water flow. Dams are classified as either storage, diversion or detention. As you could probably notice from it's name, storage dams are created to collect or hold water for periods of time when there is a surplus supply. The water is then used when there is a lack of supply. For example many small dams impound water in the spring, for use in the summer dry months. Storage dams also supply a water supply, or an improved habitat for fish and wildlife; they may store water for hydroelectricity as well.2 A diversion dam is a generation of a commonly constructed dam which is built to provide sufficient water pressure for pushing water into ditches, canals or other systems. These dams, which are normally shorter than storage dams are used for irrigation developments and for diversion the of water from a stream to a reservoir. Diversion dams are mainly built to lessen the effects of floods and to trap sediment.3 Overflow dams are designed to carry water which flow over thier crests, because of this they must be made of materials which do not erode. Non- overflow dams are built not to be overtopped, and they may include earth or rock in their body. Often, two types of these dams are combined to form a composite structure consisting of for example an overflow concrete gravity dam, the water that overflows into dikes of earthfill construction.4 A dam's primary function is to trap water for irrigation. Dams help to decrease the severity of droughts, increase agricultural production, and create new lands for agricultural use. Farmland, however, has it's price; river bottomlands flooded, defacing the fertility of the soil. This agricultural land may also result in a loss of natural artifacts. Recently in Tasmania where has been pressure

Puritan Life

The expansion of literacy Influenced Puritans to become more involved in society, as most began to read the bible. As Christians, colonists of New England In the 17th century, felt compelled to be devoted to god In all possible manners; thus resulting In the formation of a tight knit community that was centered on the church.This united sense within the community spread, according to John Winthrop, It was the will of God; God had Intended for man to unite as one to better serve him, In order for them not to lose God's support Puritans must come together In all circumstances, be It miracle or tragedy. Puritans felt God had a Lana for their lives, that he had led them to the New world with great Intentions for them: feeling God had led them to the place they came to call home, Puritans sought out to discover the purpose God had brought them here.In doing so they developed a theory that God had determined they be bestowed with literacy, leaving illiterate ministries in the past (as note d in A Statement about Education in New England. 1643). The expansion of literacy influenced Puritans to become more involved in society, as most began to read the bible. As Christians, colonists of New England in the 1 7th century, felt compelled to be devoted to god in all possible manners; thus resulting in the formation of a tight knit community that was centered on the church.This united sense within the community spread, according to John Winthrop, it was the will of God; God had intended for man to unite as one to better serve him, in order for them not to lose God's support Puritans must come together in all circumstances, be it miracle or tragedy. Puritans felt God had a plan for their lives, hat he had led them to the New World with great intentions for them; feeling God had led them to the place they came to call home, Puritans sought out to discover the purpose God had brought them here.In doing so they developed a theory that God had determined they be bestowed with lit eracy, leaving illiterate ministries In the past (as noted in A Statement about Education in New England, 1643). The expansion of literacy influenced Puritans to become more Involved in society, as most began to read the bible. As Christians, colonists of New England In the 17th century, felt impelled to be devoted to god in all possible manners; thus resulting In the formation of a tight knit community that was centered on the church.This united sense within the community spread, according to John Winthrop, It was the will of God; God had Intended for man to unite as one to better serve him, In order for them not to lose God's support Puritans must come together In all circumstances, be It miracle or tragedy-puritans felt God had a plan for their lives, that he had led them to the New World with great Intentions for them; feeling God had led them to the place hey came to call home, Puritans sought out to discover the purpose God had brought them here.In doing so they developed a th eory that God had determined they be Statement about Education in New England, 1643). The expansion of literacy influenced Puritans to become more involved in society, as most began to read the bible. As Christians, colonists of New England in the 17th century, felt compelled to be devoted to god in all possible manners; thus resulting in the formation of a tight knit community that was centered on the church.This united sense within the immunity spread, according to John Winthrop, it was the will of God; God had intended for man to unite as one to better serve him, in order for them not to lose God's support Puritans must come together in all circumstances, be it miracle or tragedy. Puritans felt God had a plan for their lives, that he had led them to the New World with great intentions for them; feeling God had led them to the place they came to call home, Puritans sought out to discover the purpose God had brought bestowed with literacy, leaving illiterate ministries in the past (as noted in A tragedy.

Julius Caesar Essay

A perspective is a representation of a particular event, situation or personality formulated due to varying ideologies prevalent within a particular time period. As such we see, persuasive texts endeavor to utilise the fears within our context, in order to instigate an emotive response through the use of manipulative language, which ultimately leads to the infiltration of our psyche. This is prevalent within Shakespeare’s historical tragedy Julius Caesar, the October 2001 TIME magazine article, â€Å"The Manhunt Goes Global† composed by John Cloud et al, in addition with Michael Moore’s 2004 scathing documentary film Fahrenheit 9/11. As a result of their times of composition, we see conflicting perspectives concerning the fear of tyranny arising within these texts. This tyranny for a contemporary audience may be the rise of terrorism induced by 9/11, hence leading to dichotomous views as to the responsibility of these attacks. Through the use of rhetoric and persuasive language within the texts the composers utilise the fear of tyranny to shape the response of an internal and external audience. Through the funeral orations, Brutus, a stoic character uses syllogism in â€Å"There is tears for his love†¦honour for his valor and death for his ambition† to reinforce the concern of dictatorship predominant within the Roman context of the play by compelling the Plebeians of the righteousness of the assassination. Similarly, this notion of the fear of tyranny is implied in the TIME magazine article, â€Å"The Manhunt Goes Global† . The written medium of production as well as the form of a magazine article characterises the use of a subjective tone in order to appeal to the informed and educated audience, â€Å"In fact†¦that French antiterrorist officials have taken to calling the city Londonistan. † The use of neologism ‘Londonistan’ may perhaps suggest the composer’s purpose to affirm the involvement of Al Qaeda through the deliberate manipulation of the motivations within the audience. Therefore, we see intense opinions portrayed through deductive reasoning, shaping an emotive response by utilising the motivations of the audience. Perhaps, Shakespeare’s purpose through the use of manipulative language may be to imply the fluid nature of perspectives evoked by our underlying fears. This notion is exemplified through numbing effect on the audience created through the use of caesura in the rhetoric and form of iambic pentameter within Antony’s speech, â€Å"Ambition should be made of sterner stuff; yet Brutus says he was ambitious†. Likewise, through the magazine article â€Å"The Manhunt Goes Global† the racial tension in the educated audience of the magazine is manipulated to impose the composer’s perspective through the pragmatic use of evidence. But Bush Administration sources tell TIME that U. S authorities have acquired evidence†¦at al-Qaeda camps in Afghanistan. †The use of high modality persuades the audience to attain the perspective of the involvement of Al Qaeda. Therefore, the particular use of form and provocative rhetoric leads to the formulation of emot ive responses. However, persuasive texts may ultimately aim to infiltrate our psyche, through the use of appeals that manipulate our values. Antony’s oration undermines the fear of tyranny through the use of pathos. Look, in this place ran Cassius’ dagger through. See what a rent the envious Casca made. † The use of an imperative ‘Look’ is used to shape the audience’s response by appealing to their sense of justice and equality. The medium of production and use of a historical play results in the use of dramatic conventions, such as stage direction as â€Å"ANTONY steps down† from the pulpit. In this instance, the cathartic effect of Shakespeare’s use of humility leads to the manipulation of the Plebeians response as a sense of equality is evoked through an opportunity to make a judgment. Conversely, in Moore’s Fahrenheit 9/11 the visual medium of production and form of a documentary film utilises rationality and authenticity to appeal to the human condition by inducing a sense of credibility. Spin doctoring through the use of a cumulative series of images with Newspaper headlines â€Å"White House Approved Departure of Saudis after Sept. 11,† highlights Moore’s purpose as to persuade the American populous of the alleged connections of the Bush government to 9/11 by appealing to their sense of rationality induced by contextual disdain with the government. Moore utilises a sarcastic tone to induce a fear of oppression. Perhaps he should have read the security briefing†¦on August 6th 2001†, this pragmatic use of evidence and sarcasm manipulates our psyche by inducing a poignant response. The concern of dictatorship is further exemplified through the use of balanced sentences and antithetical ideas as Brutus states â€Å"As Caesar loved m e†¦I honour him: but as he was ambitious, I slew him. † A rationale of the assassination is proposed through the repetition of the personal pronoun as Brutus’ honour adds to the notion of integrity formulated in order to persuade the audience of the conspirator’s apparent oble cause. Similarly the notion of integrity is used by Moore, to appeal to the human condition through deductive reasoning as one such authoritarian figure FBI agent Jack Clooney states â€Å"I as an investigator would not have wanted these people [Osama Bin Laden’s family] to leave†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The use of contextual political turmoil persuades the audience to perceive 9/11 to be a political ploy resulting in the rise of terrorism. Through, these texts we see the influence of the use of reason and logic, leading to the formulation of an empathetic response due to the infiltration of our psyche. Although, texts may use various mediums of production and textual form such as in Shakespeare’s historical tragedy Julius Caesar, Michael Moore’s documentary Fahrenheit 9/11 and John Cloud et al’s magazine article â€Å"The Manhunt Goes Global†. Ultimately, the discerning power of language and appeals such as those involving equality and justice, as a consequence of the fears embedded within the composer’s context, have a cathartic effect and therefore influence emotive responses within an internal and external audience to a large extent.

#FreelancerFriday #5 - Robert Falcó, Translator

#FreelancerFriday #5 - Robert Falcà ³, Translator #FreelancerFriday #5 - Robert Falcà ³, Translator â€Å"You have to almost be the ideal reader of the original. You have to really understand it, you have to be in the author’s skin. You’re thinking ‘Why have they said that?’ or 'Why does that character talk that way?’†We met Robert Falcà ³ at the London Book Fair last year. Robert runs the Wider Words project with his business partner Ana Alcaina. They concentrate on helping self-published authors translate their work for the Spanish market. Robert has been a translator for fifteen years, translating over 100 books for authors as prominent as Ken Follett and Stephen King. He’s the first translator we’ve spoken to, and he offered us some insights into the (seemingly enormously difficult!) task of translating fiction.REEDSYSo first I have to ask - you worked with Stephen King?ROBERT FALCÓYeah, I translated Under The Dome, which is now a TV show in its second season. I did that about 3 or 4 years ago.REEDSYGosh.ROBERT FALCÃ⠀œUsually, when you’re translating one of those big names, Stephen King, Ken Follett - I think foreign publishers are trying to publish the book around the same time as the United States or in England. You know, just to make the most of the promotion, if the author’s travelling through Europe, they try to publish the book in Spanish or French or whatever at the same time. But the thing is you also have to translate the book.For instance, if the American publisher has four months after the manuscript is handed in to go through the whole editorial process, the Spanish publishers often have the same amount of time to do that same process - but translated. It’s a lot of pressure.  Not to mention the pressure you feel from the readers of authors with a very strong fan base. In the case of Stephen King this is specially significant - you know hardcore King fans have forums and websites devoted to him, you know they’re waiting anxiously for the Spanish transla tion of his book and you know they’re going to scrutinise your work.REEDSYWhat do you work with when you’re translating? Do you use get to compare multiple drafts of the manuscript or anything?ROBERT FALCÓIt depends a lot on the author, on the publisher, on the date of publication and all those things. In some cases I’ve worked straight from Word manuscripts, in others I’ve waited for the final copy. If you’re working in parallel with other editors, and they’re making alterations, you have to add those in. So in those cases you might have a few different versions of the same passage.I started translating around 2000. Back then, before Facebook, it could be a long process to make those queries and you might not have time to do too many. But now with Twitter you can reach out directly to the author and ask, you know, â€Å"At this point here, did you mean this, or something completely different?†REEDSYIs that the sort of query you o ften take to authors, trying to nail down the meaning of some particular passage?ROBERT FALCÓYeah, that sort of thing. I almost get a little paranoid when I see a sentence that has a double meaning, and I’ll ask â€Å"Hey, did you mean to do that, was it on purpose, did you mean this thing or did you mean the other?† With some authors it’s not necessarily - the style is very simple, but with more complicated authors you want to make sure. Hidden references are another thing. The title is sometimes difficult because it might be a reference to - who knows, the author’s favourite author, or anything. When you translate you try to analyse the original from a very rational point of view. So if something doesn’t make sense you have to ask â€Å"Does this not make sense on purpose, or is there a hidden reason for it?† I think half of the quotes or references I find in English are either to the Bible, to Shakespeare, or to Lewis Carroll.You have to almost be the ideal reader of the original. You have to really understand it, you have to be in the author’s skin. You’re thinking â€Å"Why have they said that?† or â€Å"Why does that character talk that way?† The thing is, you’re trying to be the ideal reader but the ideal reader doesn’t exist. Who’s the ideal reader for Mark Twain? Is it a contemporary American? An American from a century ago? Who is the ideal reader for Julian Barnes?In the end you just do your best. There’s no such thing as a perfect translation. There are extremely excellent translations.REEDSYWhat do you do when you get a new project?ROBERT FALCÓUnless the publisher thinks the project will be especially difficult, I normally translate as I go through it the first time. I take notes - I thank God everyday for Evernote which is an excellent tool for translators. Like I say, I tend to get a lot of quotes from the Bible, or Shakespeare,  and other classic authors.  I can take photos of those quotes and keep them together. I have an Evernote notebook for each of the books I’m working on with all the related information. If I have to find any specialised vocabulary on sailing, on guns, on horses, I keep a glossary for that.My first-draft will be full of comments. My manuscripts are like an annotated version of my own translation. When it’s done, I go back, and have to try to solve all of these thoughts I had. I might need to follow up with specialists on a subject that was relevant. It’s not unlike a writer doing a first-draft and working on that really. Usually the correction part of the process is when I tend to keep away from the original - keep away in the sense of not using the English structure of sentences, I mean. English tends to use the passive tense much more often than Spanish - that’s the kind of thing I’m looking to correct when I do my own translation.Take for instance if I w ere editing a John Grisham novel. They often involve the American legal system. That’s not my area, so I’m sure I’d have to consult Spanish lawyers or legal translators to learn the terminology, how a trial in America works, how a trial is different in America compared to Spain, how I should reflect that in my translation, or whether I should at all. Even if you can read the sentence and you know the terminology in Spanish, if you don’t understand what’s taking place it’s difficult to translate it. So my contacts are there to help with that.REEDSYAre there any particularly interesting specialists you’ve had to contact?ROBERT FALCÓLast year I had to contact two astrophysicists while working on a passage that referenced black holes. I found some specialists working at Spanish universities. It was very difficult.REEDSYIs there anything an author can do to help you?ROBERT FALCÓThe best thing they can do is be collaborative. Author s are generally willing to give us a hand, and that’s the best they can do.REEDSYIs there anything you think authors should be aware of when they’re exploring translation options?ROBERT FALCÓAs you know, there’s this explosion of indie publishing and writers trying all these experiments. I have this project with my business partner where we want to concentrate on self-publishing. We think it’s the next natural step in the market. Authors who have had great success in England or America can have that same success in Spain.I think the most difficult thing for the author is taking the leap of faith. It’s like handing your baby to another person. We have to say â€Å"We’re going to do the best we can, we’re going treat your book with care we’re going to do the best work possible. We want to make sure your book is as good in Spanish as it is in English.† I can understand the authors being worried. For them the world of tr anslation is an unknown world - not many authors work with translators.Translation is very different to the other publishing specialties in many ways. To translate a book into Spanish, you need to realise there are these varieties of Spanish just like in English. It’s not the same translating for Argentina as for Mexico as for Spain. If your book has a lot of slang, it might be difficult to do a version in Spanish which will be read as well in Spain, in Argentina, in the different markets. Whereas if your book is Standard English, it makes things easier for us. There’s 400 million Spanish speakers in the world, and yes they speak the same language - but each country has differences. Each country has its own cultural specialties.REEDSYDo you have any knowledge about books that might succeed in the Spanish market?ROBERT FALCÓSince 50 Shades of Grey, Romance and Erotica are the big thing. We have found we’re getting more of that translation, whereas five years ago we would never have expect that. In the best-sellers list you find all the big names of course. Historical novels are very big. It’s inevitable that there’s all this influence from the American and English markets.

Jeffersons Pillow essays

Jefferson's Pillow essays Who were the founders of America? When one thinks of the words founding fathers, the first thing that should come to mind are national figures like George Washington, James Madison, George Mason and Thomas Jefferson. Although these men are founders of America, they were also founders of a social institution that would be embedded in American life for hundreds of years. This social institution is otherwise known as slavery. In the book Jeffersons Pillow by Roger Wilkins, Wilkins discusses the real truth about the founders and the founding of the nation. The standard story about the founding of the nation has been told millions of times, but there is always one major part of the story that is left out. The voices that are never heard are the voices of blacks in the society of the new nation. The pages of millions of history books are filled with the success of whites, but there always seem to be blank pages that should contain the story of the contribution of blacks. This fact upsets many blacks today and ultimately results in the death of black patriotism. The idea that blacks never existed is due to the fact that Washington, Madison, Mason, and Jefferson were trying to erase history while they were writing it. In order for blacks to gain patriotism and to understand who we are, we must probe more deeply into who these four [men] were.(Wilkins 10) George Washington is known as the first father of the country, but should really be thought of as the first man to erase the writing on the blackboard. He was a man of many advantages and great success. Washington is always applauded and praised for the work he did for the country, but many do not know or choose to ignore the other side of this man. His other side was faced with a struggle dealing with ideas on slavery. For example, Washington desperately needed men to fight, but refused to let the twenty percent of the black population fight. It is natural ...

A Study on the Different Opinions about Human Categorization Based On Physical Traits and Sexual Orientation

A Study on the Different Opinions about Human Categorization Based On Physical Traits and Sexual Orientation Society’s Characterization of the Condemned Although we like to have a promising view on our own mortals, we and our society can be cruel and unforgiving even when we don’t expect it. We see our viewpoints of classes, races, and sexes all being similar coexisting in in a world of equality, but our decisions on who to put on death row and who gets to walk will always be apparent to our personal prejudices. The truth is, our brains are incapable of judging somebody solely for their actions, and not taking anything from their physical appearance to the sexual identity into that judgement. If we were to decide a person’s fate without seeing them or hearing anything about them besides the crime they’ve committed, our prison and death row inmates would be a completely different cast of people. But, since we’re exposed to the race and gender of everyone put on trial, our judgements reflect the qualities of these people in the harshest of ways. The race or sexual identity of an individual involved in any certain situation can completely compromised by the society around them, and that stands true with inmates on death row. In our country, a white female going on trial for murder will have a completely different outcome than a black male convicted of doing the same thing. For a lot of people, whether or not they know it, the race or sexually identity of the accused can greatly affect their punishment, regardless of the crime they commit. Separate human beings have separate subconscious desires to punish or defend one class of individuals differently than others, and this prejudice holds true in even the most extreme of situations. Nobody can completely ignore the details of person placed in front of them, everyone has their own dark opinions that greatly affect any situation. When those opinions spread across a community and take hold of entire societies, many may seem racist or sexisttrials as â€Å"normal†, and judg e them according to the expectations of their neighboring peers. Because of this, a single person can be put to death while being judged from one society, but freed if they were judged by another, different society. In some instances, the identity of the person who committed the crime affects the outcome more than the crime itself. Of course, this prejudice does not only fall into place in established countries. This is a phenomenon happening around the world, with some dilemnas being more extreme than others. A great example of this was in the article Uganda’s Death Penalty for Gays, in an entire culture is attacked, threatened, and harshly judged more than others. In Uganda, homosexuals are punished for any kind of gay behavior, no matter what the context or situation. Gays are outcasts here, and are treated as such. The entire community has a clear hatred for this specific type of person, and that opinion is heavily reflected on their laws and punishments. From these rules and terms, we have the right to assume the people of Uganda exercise these prejudices in their daily lives and behavior. Their characterization of who they’re killing and for what reasons don’t just apply to their culture, but are most likely influenced by it. Even though it’s not nearly as extreme, what’s happening in Uganda is similar to what’s happening to the African Americans in our country. There are no laws strictly tailored against the black community, yet America is commonly blamed for using excessive force and punishment against African Americans and people of foreign countries. Looking at the statistics from the Death Penalty Information Center, we can see that 75% of murder victims in cases leading to an execution were white, even though only roughly 50% of murder victims in total were white. Assisting this information, only 43% of inmates on death row are white, even though 72% of our country’s population is white. Although we promote equality for all races, our society seems to judge the ethnic community harsher than caucasians and females, and the punishments we choose to inflict on one race may not apply to another, regardless of the crime. That being said, we also tend to make the punishments for men much more cruel than those towards women. If a woman rapes or murders someone else, the chances of her being put on death row is much slimmer than if a man did the same. In contrast to this, some countries in the Middle East will murder a woman for talking back to a man. All these small details over who the person is generally overshadow what the person has done, and that’s something that can greatly change the outcome of somebody’s entire life. Every community has different values, and your punishment for any crime would probably change based on where in the world you were standing. In a perfect world, all races and genders would be treated equally, everywhere. Unfortunately, every society has prejudices they can’t escape from, and the subtle repercussions from those may be the difference between life and death.

A review of academic research undertaken in relation to Small and Assignment

A review of academic research undertaken in relation to Small and Medium Sized Enterprises - Assignment Example 5. The act focused on increasing the enterprises’ production outputs, increasing revenues and profits. 6. Small and medium enterprises reduce London’s Unemployment rate. 7. Small and medium enterprises are either sole proprietorships or partnerships. 8. Small and medium enterprises have less than 250 employees. 9. Small and medium enterprises are profitable business ventures. 10. U.K.’s laissez Faire (free) economy encourages entry into the lucrative small and medium enterprise market. 11. With lower capital investments than corporations, small and medium enterprises are preferred choices. 12. The United Kingdom government must implement the provisions of the 2008 Small Business Act for Europe. 13. The United Kingdom government must help lessen small and medium enterprises loan requirements. 14. The United Kingdom government must ensure small and medium enterprises comply with tax, labour, and environmental protection statutes. 15. Small and medium enterprises si gnificantly contribute to the improvement of the United Kingdom economy. Introduction Many individuals boldly join the risky small and medium enterprise market segment. The market segment is grounded on low capital investments. The market segment reduces the United Kingdom unemployment rate. ... Pederzini insists that the European Union exerted extra efforts to help the small and medium European Union member nations’ business money. With the small capital investments, the small and medium size business entities need additional borrowed funds (Warren, 2008). The borrowed funds will help increase the company’s revenues. With more revenues, the small and medium size companies will generate higher net profits. In addition, the additional loan amounts will help the companies pay for the salaries of additional employees. With more employees hired, the service and product quality and speed will consequently increase. After the successful launch of the 2000 European Charter for Small Enterprises, the European Union leaders launched the equally successful Lisbon Growth and Jobs Strategy in 2005. Next, the European Union leadership focused their attention to helping the small and medium enterprises improve their European Union business prospects (Dallago, 2012). In 2008, the European Union launched the timely Small Business Act for Europe. The act contains three favorable aims. First, the government leaders set the guidelines for the improvement economic environment of the small and medium enterprise players. The improvements will trigger higher revenues. With higher revenues, the enterprises can hire more workers. With more workers, the European Union’s unfavorably high unemployment rate will significantly drop to permissible levels (Dallago, 2012). Second, the act focused on increasing competitiveness among the European Union’s small and medium enterprise players. Increasing competitiveness significantly persuades the competitors to improve the quality of their products and services (Cant, 2009). Improvement of their products and

Conduct on-line research to locate two (2) recent cases (one of child Essay

Conduct on-line research to locate two (2) recent cases (one of child abuse and one of elder abuse). Summarize the case and iden - Essay Example Meanwhile, he kept abusing the child as well. Piskorski used to scald the child with boiling water, and held his hand into the heater. Piskorski also mistreated and endangered the child in many other ways. He was also alleged to have tried to stuff Scheurman’s son into the freezer. During the court proceedings, the judge slapped a lash against one of the benches in the court room to explain the way Piskorski used to abuse the little child, as per his understanding of the matter. Dr. Susan Omura, who was appointed as the child’s emergency physician during the court proceedings, treated the child. After examining the body of the little child completely, Dr. Susan Omura identified numerous marks of injuries. According to her, it was â€Å"one of the most severe cases of child abuse she’s ever seen† (KPTV, 2010). Sue Robinson, one of the child’s family members, said she could not recognize him when she first saw the boy lying on a bed in the hospital be cause of excessive swelling all over his body. When investigated, Scheurman told that she was so badly in love with Piskorski that she overlooked the abuse he would offer to her son. Because of her careless attitude, inconsideration and neglect, Scheurman was sentenced to jail for 180 days. In addition to that, she was offered 3 years of probation, and was required to undergo a thorough psychological treatment. Bill Robinson, the lawyer said, â€Å"As much time as he possibly can get. ... He was left to suffer from psychological stress and trauma for the life ahead. Physically abused children may recover injuries and scars on their bodies, but the marks on their mind never fade away. Adult abuse case study: Helen was a girl in mid 20s when the incident happened. She suffers from extreme learning difficulties. She lived in a residential area. On one eve in the summer, as she was alone in her home, she was raped by one of the temporary staff members, who had stayed for the night shift. Because of her learning and speaking difficulties, she did not know how she would narrate her story to others. After a period of 5 months, the care team of Helen found out that she was pregnant. A care professional said, â€Å"They discovered the relief care agency hadn't done the proper checks† (Hogg, 2009). In order to identify the culprit responsible for Helen’s condition, a forensic investigation was carried out. Soon after the investigation opened, the temporary staff m ember was caught. He was an illegal immigrant. The worker got imprisoned and it was considered as Helen’s success. However, the trauma the woman went through at the time she was raped, the after-rape period and later, when she was declared pregnant was too much for the justification of few years of imprisonment for the rapist. Not only was she humiliated at the time when she was raped, but she would have to live with the memories of it for the rest of her life along with her child. Therefore, such kinds of cases offer the victim both physical and psychological abuse. Helen’s was only one of millions of cases that happen all over the world every day. â€Å"Women age 12 or older annually sustained almost 5 million violent victimizations in 1992 and 1993† (Sound Vision, 2011). In every day work,

Supply and Demand of Gasoline Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Supply and Demand of Gasoline - Essay Example The gasoline price has ostensibly undergone extensive fluctuations mainly because of the product nature and the industry which supplies the world with oil. Note that a bulk of the aggregate oil output is produced by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). This influential group is organized as a cartel and composed of nations in the Middle East including United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait among others. The main produce of these countries is oil and other petroleum products. Other countries, including the United States, are largely dependent on these countries for their oil supply (Case & Fair, 2002). With their rich oil resources, these nations created the cartel which has the ability to control member countries’ oil production capacity and output quotas of enabled them to collude to raise the oil price by. Given its mandate, supply of oil including gasoline is significantly affected by political unrest arising between these oil-exporting countries and other countries as well. To illustrate this point, supply of petroleum products was adversely affected by the war between Iran and Iraq in 1979. This tumultuous battle between two of the largest oil producers had caused a global oil supply shock and resulted in a dramatic increase in the price of oil. The limited oil supply then was further aggravated by the restricted means of transporting oil products to the rest of the world.

Working with the Gay, Lesbian, Bi-sexual, and Transgendered therapy Research Paper

Working with the Gay, Lesbian, Bi-sexual, and Transgendered therapy patient - Research Paper Example These challenges often end up impacting on the actual effectiveness of the therapeutic sessions. It is therefore important for counselors to find out as much information about his patients as possible. In working with lesbians, gays, bisexuals, and transgendered clients, this is not much different. The most information which can ensure effectiveness during therapy must be established. This paper shall discuss how counselors can effectively work with lesbians, gays, bisexual and transgendered (LGBT) clients. It shall synthesize research about the population and present the most important information about working with them. This study is being carried out in order to establish a clear and comprehensive understanding of the LGBT and to ensure effectiveness of the counseling process. Discussion Gays and lesbian and other transgendered individuals often feel isolated from the rest of the world (Callahan, 2001). For the most part, they also have a poor self-image which often prompts them to hide their sexual orientation from the rest of society. They also try to fit into society by trying out conventional and accepted activities and actions for their gender (Callahan, 2001). For counselors working with teen LGBT, they must gather as much information as they can about homosexuality. ... In effect, some experts have expressed the need for counselors to gather up-to-date information about their gay students through a human sexuality course (Callahan, 2001). Such course may assist counselors in recognizing their possible roles involving their suicidal gay students and those going through similar mental breakdowns in relation to their sexuality. In working with LGBTs, it is also important for counselors to be their patients’ advocates, especially in the schools and the communities. Through this advocacy, it is possible to open up the lines of communication between the other students and the gay community – to help incorporate these individuals into mainstream society (Callahan, 2001). Counselors must also try their best to support and protect this sexual minority by creating a safe environment in which these students can enter. By making it safe for them to seek counseling, it is possible to increase the number of LGBTs seeking counseling and eventually he lp safeguard their mental health. In a study by Bartlett, et.al., (2001) the authors set out to establish the therapeutic approaches taken by contemporary psychotherapists and psychoanalysts in relation to their gay and lesbian clients. They were able to establish that gays and lesbians seeking psychoanalytic therapy in the National Health Service for personal reasons would have difficulties finding gay therapists if they want one. This study also established that clients may often encounter overt or covert bias, including the pathologisation of homosexuality (Bartlett, et.al., 2001). In a paper by Godfrey, et.al., (2006) the authors set out to determine the knowledge, experiences, and values that therapists must possess in order to ensure quality therapy services for gays,

The Iranian threats to block the Strait of Hormuz(SOH)- an analysis on Research Paper

The Iranian threats to block the Strait of Hormuz(SOH)- an analysis on the Iran's capabilities and the global implications of the blockage - Research Paper Example The Strait of Hormuz is located sandwiched between the Omani Musandam Peninsula and Iran. The Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman are linked with the help of this strait. By taking out a median and other calculated analysis, the Strait of Hormuz extends to a length of 140 miles. However, the Strait gets narrowed down to ‘twenty nautical miles’ towards the north-east ending that is between Iran and Oman. China is the biggest exporter of Iranian oil, which uses the Strait of Hormuz for navigation of its ships to and from the strait. US and other western countries also use this track for the transportation of oil. Many other countries of the world also use this strait. For safe transportation of oil supply, US has implanted its military forces, so it is well equipped in the Gulf region. There cannot be second opinion about US dominance in the region currently. Iranian officials openly threatened the world to close the Strait of Hormuz, which is a major artery of the world oil market as a result of oil sanctions imposed on Iran. According to oil experts, disruption of oil through the aforementioned route could significantly hamper the global oil prices. Most of the oil flows go to Asia via this route. The oil market is globally well knitted and a disruption anywhere could cause higher oil prices everywhere. Internationally, the threat announcement made by Iran to close the Strait of Hormuz is taken very seriously and all the countries have disapproved Iran’s threatening statements. The future implications in case the threat is implemented in actuality will be economic as well as militarily. As far as the capability of Iran is concerned in terms of closing the strait, there is a joint consensus that it would have no problem in implementing the threat, but the situation is same with the US. US, as a dominant force in the strait could not allow Iran to close the strait. Therefore,

Supply and Demand of Gasoline Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Supply and Demand of Gasoline - Essay Example The gasoline price has ostensibly undergone extensive fluctuations mainly because of the product nature and the industry which supplies the world with oil. Note that a bulk of the aggregate oil output is produced by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). This influential group is organized as a cartel and composed of nations in the Middle East including United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait among others. The main produce of these countries is oil and other petroleum products. Other countries, including the United States, are largely dependent on these countries for their oil supply (Case & Fair, 2002). With their rich oil resources, these nations created the cartel which has the ability to control member countries’ oil production capacity and output quotas of enabled them to collude to raise the oil price by. Given its mandate, supply of oil including gasoline is significantly affected by political unrest arising between these oil-exporting countries and other countries as well. To illustrate this point, supply of petroleum products was adversely affected by the war between Iran and Iraq in 1979. This tumultuous battle between two of the largest oil producers had caused a global oil supply shock and resulted in a dramatic increase in the price of oil. The limited oil supply then was further aggravated by the restricted means of transporting oil products to the rest of the world.

The Iranian threats to block the Strait of Hormuz(SOH)- an analysis on Research Paper

The Iranian threats to block the Strait of Hormuz(SOH)- an analysis on the Iran's capabilities and the global implications of the blockage - Research Paper Example The Strait of Hormuz is located sandwiched between the Omani Musandam Peninsula and Iran. The Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman are linked with the help of this strait. By taking out a median and other calculated analysis, the Strait of Hormuz extends to a length of 140 miles. However, the Strait gets narrowed down to ‘twenty nautical miles’ towards the north-east ending that is between Iran and Oman. China is the biggest exporter of Iranian oil, which uses the Strait of Hormuz for navigation of its ships to and from the strait. US and other western countries also use this track for the transportation of oil. Many other countries of the world also use this strait. For safe transportation of oil supply, US has implanted its military forces, so it is well equipped in the Gulf region. There cannot be second opinion about US dominance in the region currently. Iranian officials openly threatened the world to close the Strait of Hormuz, which is a major artery of the world oil market as a result of oil sanctions imposed on Iran. According to oil experts, disruption of oil through the aforementioned route could significantly hamper the global oil prices. Most of the oil flows go to Asia via this route. The oil market is globally well knitted and a disruption anywhere could cause higher oil prices everywhere. Internationally, the threat announcement made by Iran to close the Strait of Hormuz is taken very seriously and all the countries have disapproved Iran’s threatening statements. The future implications in case the threat is implemented in actuality will be economic as well as militarily. As far as the capability of Iran is concerned in terms of closing the strait, there is a joint consensus that it would have no problem in implementing the threat, but the situation is same with the US. US, as a dominant force in the strait could not allow Iran to close the strait. Therefore,

Oration on the Dignity of Man Essay Example for Free

Oration on the Dignity of Man Essay As history progressed to the Middle Ages, new technology, people, and ideas emerge throughout the world. Similar(ly) to Ancient Greece, we see the study of religion and philosophy become a big part of life. One of the most notorious and ambitious philosophers at the time was Giovanni Pico Della Mirandola. He was a Christian who wanted to consolidate various religions and unite all of those ideas with Christian principles. Some of the religions he wanted to combine include Jewish, Greek, and Islamic values. His ideas revolve around the study of humans, more specifically, how we came into existence and how we interact with the world around us and God. His theories, however, were highly criticized by the Church because they believed that his work opposed Christian ideologies and perception of free will and humanity. Pico was not happy with the church either but nevertheless, he formulated a collective theory and put his ideas into text called the 900 Conclusions. The Oration on the Dignity of Man was an introduction to this work and answers many questions regarding the creation of mankind and the relationship we have with God and nature. Pico begins his oration by explaining how mankind was created by God. He also answers the question of who we are â€Å"man is the intermediary between creatures, that he is the familiar of the gods above him as he is the lord of the beings beneath him; that, by the acuteness of his senses, the inquiry of his reason and the light of his intelligence, he is the interpreter of nature, set midway between the timeless unchanging and the flux of time; the living union (as the Persians say), the very marriage hymn of the world, and, by David’s testimony but little lower than the angels† (3). .man created out ofmade out of In addition, Pico describes why God created man, he needed a being to appreciate all of his creations â€Å"But when this work was done, the Divine Artificer still longed for some creature which might comprehend the meaning of so vast an achievement, which might be moved with love at its beauty and smitten with awe at its grandeur† (3). Humans are the greatest creation of God, and we have been given the opportunity to choose where we end up in life. Pico says that we have the free will to choose our own paths. He claims that this can strengthen or weaken man’s relationship towards God â€Å"impeded by no such restrictions, may, by your own free will, to whose custody We have assigned you, trace for yourself the lineaments of your own nature. I have placed you at the very center of the world, so that from that vantage point you may with greater ease glance round about you on all that the world contains. We have made you a creature neither of heaven nor of earth, neither mortal nor immortal, in order that you may, as the free and proud shaper of your own being, fashion yourself in the form you may prefer. It will be in your power to descend to the lower, brutish forms of life; you will be able, through your own decision, to rise again to the superior orders whose life is divine† (4). Pico also writes tha t since we have this freedom, we must choose our paths wisely. If humans become sensual and brutish, they will be like animals. On the other hand, if they’re rational and intellectual, they can become heavenly like angels â€Å"Whichever of these a man shall cultivate, the same will mature and bear fruit in him. If vegetative, he will become a plant; if sensual, he will become brutish; if rational, he will reveal himself a heavenly being; if intellectual, he will be an angel and the son of God† (4-5). According to Pico, if humans emulate the actions of angels, through intellectual engagement, we can ascend closer to God.

Microbial Production Of Industrial Enzymes Biology Essay

Microbial Production Of Industrial Enzymes Biology Essay Enzymes are biocatalysts produced by living cells to bring about specific biochemical reactions generally forming parts of the metabolic processes of the cells. Enzymes are highly specific in their action on substrates and often many different enzymes are required to bring about, by concerted action, the sequence of metabolic reactions performed by the living cell. All enzymes which have been purified are protein in nature, and may or may not possess a nonprotein prosthetic group. The practical application and industrial use of enzymes to accomplish certain reactions apart from the cell dates back many centuries and was practiced long before the nature or function of enzymes was understood. Use of barley malt for starch conversion inbrewing, and of dung for bating of hides in leather making, are examples of ancient use of enzymes. It was not until nearly the turn of this century that the causative agents or enzymes responsible for bringing about such biochemical reactions became known. Then crude preparations from certain animal tissues such as pancreas and stomach mucosa, or from plant tissues such as malt and papaya fruit, were prepared which found technical applications in the textile, leather,brewing, and other industries. HISTORY:- Dr. Jokichi Takamine (1894, 1914) was the first person to realize the technical possibility of cultivated enzymes and to introduce them to industry. He was mainly concerned with fungal enzymes, whereas Boidin and Effront (1917) in France pioneered in the production of bacterial enzymes about 20 years later.Technological progress in this field during the last decades has been so great that, for many uses, micro-bial cultivated enzymes have replaced the animal or plant enzymes. Once the favorable results of employing such enzyme preparations were established, a search began for better, less expensive, and more readily available sources of such enzymes.It was found that certain microorganisms produce enzymes similar in action to the amylases of malt and pancreas, or to the proteases of the pancreas and papaya fruit. This led to the development of processes for producing such microbial enzymes on a commercial scale Example, in textile desizing, bacterial amylase has largely replaced malt or pancreatin. At present, only a relatively small number of microbial enzymes have found commercial application, but the number is increasing, and the field will undoubtedly be much expanded in the future. Enzyme classification:-Presently more than 3000 different enzymes have been isolated and classified. The enzymes are classified into six major categories based on the nature of the chemical reaction they catalyze: 1. Oxidoreductases :- Catalyze oxidation or reduction of their substrates. 2. Transferases :- Catalyze group transfer. 3. Hydrolases :- Catalyze bond breakage with the addition of water. 4. Lyases :- Remove groups from their substrates. 5. Isomerases :- Catalyze intramolecular rearrangements. 6. Ligases :- Catalyze the joining of two molecules at the expense of chemical energy. Only a limited number of all the known enzymes are commercially available . More than 75 % of industrial enzymes are hydrolases. Protein-degrading enzymes constitute about 40 % of all enzyme sales. More than fifty commercial industrial enzymes are available and their number is increasing steadily PRODUCTION OF MICROBIAL ENZYMES Enzymes occur in every living cell, hence in all microorganisms. Each single strain of organism produces a large number of enzymes, hydrolyzing, oxidizing or reducing, and metabolic in nature. But the absolute and relative amounts of the various individual enzymes produced vary markedly between species and even between strains of the same species. Hence, it is customary to select strains for the commercial production of specific enzymes which have the capacity for producing highest amounts of the particular enzymes desired. Commercial enzymes are produced from strains of molds, bacteria, and yeasts Up until less than 10 years ago, commercial fungal and bacterial enzymes were produced by surface culture methods. Within the past few years, however, submerged culture methods have come into extensive use. For fungal enzymes, the mold is cultivated on the surface of a solid substrate. Takamine used wheat bran and this has come to be recognized as the most satisfactory basic substrate although other fibrous materials can be employed. Other ingredients may be added, such as nutrient salts, acid or buffer to regulate the pH, soy bean meal or beet cosettes to stimulate enzyme production. In one modification of the bran process, the bran is steamed for sterilization, cooled, inoculated with the mold spores and are then spreaded .Incubation takes place in chambers where the temperature and humidity are controlled within limits by circulated air. It may be stated that instead of trays for incubation, Takamine, as well as other producers, at one time used slowly rotating drums. Generally tray incubation gives more rapid growth and enzyme production. Bacterial enzymes have been and are also produced by the bran process. .Incubation takes place in chambers where the temperature and humidity are controlled within limits by circulated air However, until recently the process originally invented by Boidin and Effront was most extensively employed In this process, the bacteria are cultivated in special culture vessels as a pel licle on the surface of thin layers of liquid medium, the composition of which is adjusted for maximum production of the desired enzyme. Different strains of Bacillus subtilis and different media are employed, depending on whether bacterial amylase or protease is desired. PRODUCTION PROCESS OF INDUSTRIAL ENZYMES USING MICROBES Solid State Fermentation Solid-state fermentation (SSF) is a method used for the production of enzymes. Solid-state fermentation involves the cultivation of microorganisms on a solid substrate, such as grains, rice and wheat bran. This method is an alternative to the production of enzymes in liquid by submerged fermentation. SSF has many advantages over submerged fermentation. These include, high volumetric productivity, relatively high concentration of product, less effluent generated and simple fermentation equipment.. SSF requires moisture to be present on the substrate, for the microorganisms to produce enzymes. As a consequence the water content of the substrate must also be optimized, as a higher or lower presence of water may adversely affect the microbial activity. Water also has implications for the physicochemical properties of the solid substrate. Enzymes of industrial importance have been produced by SSF. Some examples are, proteases, pectinases, glucoamylases andcellulases Microorganisms used for the production of enzymes in S.S.F. A large number of microorganisms, including bacteria, yeast and fungi produce different groups of enzymes.Selection of a particular strain, however, remains a tedious task, especially when commercially competent enzyme yields are to be achieved. The selection of a suitable strain for the required purpose depends upon a number of factors, in particular upon the nature of the substrate and environmental conditions. Generally, hydrolytic enzymes, e.g. cellulases, xylanases, pectinases, etc. are produced by fungal cultures, since such enzymes are used in nature by fungi for their growth. Trichoderma spp. and Aspergillus spp. have most widely been used for these enzymes. Amylolytic enzymes too are commonly produced by filamentous fungi and the preferred strains belong to the species of Aspergillus and Rhizopus. Although commercial production of amylases is carried out using both fungal and bacterial cultures, bacterial a -amylase is generally preferred for starch liquefaction due to its h igh temperature stability. In order to achieve high productivity with less production cost, apparently, genetically modified strains would hold the key to enzyme production. Substrates used for the production of enzymes in SSF systems Agro-industrial residues are generally considered the best substrates for the SSF processes, and use of SSF for the production of enzymes is no exception to that. A number of such substrates have been employed for the cultivation of microorganisms to produce host of enzymes .Some of the substrates that have been used included sugar cane bagasse, wheat bran, rice bran, maize bran, gram bran, wheat straw, rice straw, rice husk, soyhull, sago hampas, grapevine trimmings dust, saw dust, corncobs, coconut coir pith, banana waste, tea waste, cassava waste, palm oil mill waste, aspen pulp, sugar beet pulp, sweet sorghum pulp, apple pomace, peanut meal, rapeseed cake, coconut oil cake, mustard oil cake, cassava flour, wheat flour, corn flour, steamed rice, steam pre-treated willow, starch, etc.Wheat bran however holds the key, and has most commonly been used, in various processes. The selection of a substrate for enzyme production in a SSF process depends upon several factors, mainly related with cost and availability of the substrate, and thus may involve screening of several agro-industrial residues. In a SSF process, the solid substrate not only supplies the nutrients to the microbial culture growing in it but also serves as an anchorage for the cells. The substrate that provides all the needed nutrients to the microorganisms growing in it should be considered as the ideal substrate. However, some of the nutrients may be available in sub-optimal concentrations, or even absent in the substrates. In such cases, it would become necessary to supplement them externally with these. It has also been a practice to pre-treat (chemically or mechanically) some of the substrates before using in SSF processes (e.g. ligno-cellulose), thereby making them more easily accessible for microbial growth. Design of bioreactor in Solid State Fermentations Over the last decade, there has been a significant improvement in understanding of how to design, operate and scale up SSF bioreactors. The key to these advances has been the application of mathematical modelling techniques to describe various physicochemical and biochemical phenomena within the system . The basic principle of SSF is the à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"solid substrate bedà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ . This bed contains the moist solids and an inter particle voids phase. SSF has been conventionally more applicable for filamentous fungi, which grow on the surface of the particle and penetrate through the inter particle spaces into the depth of the bed. The process in most of the cases is aerobic in nature. The suitable bioreactor design to overcome the heat and mass transfer effects, and easy diffusion and extraction of metabolites has become the topic of hot pursuit. While tray and drum type fermenters have been studied and used since long, much focus has been paid in last f ew years on developing packed bed fermenters as they could provide better process economics and a great deal of handling ease . A tray bioreactor could have unmixed beds without forced aeration of (manually) mixed bed without forced aeration. However, there has been no significant advances in tray design. Packed beds could be unmixed beds with forced aeration and rotating drums could have intermittent agitation without forced aeration, operating on continuous or semi-continuous mode. The bed could be agitated intermittently or continuously with forced aeration. Factors affecting enzyme production in SSF The major factors that affect microbial synthesis of enzymes in a SSF system include: selection of a suitable substrate and microorganism; pre-treatment of the substrate; particle size (inter-particle space and surface area) of the substrate; water content and aw of the substrate; relative humidity; type and size of the inoculum; control of temperature of fermenting matter/removal of metabolic heat; period of cultivation; maintenance of uniformity in the environment of SSF system, and the gaseous atmos-phere, i.e. oxygen consumption rate and carbon dioxide evolution rate. Submerged Fermentation Submerged fermentation is the cultivation of microorganisms in liquid nutrient broth. Industrial enzymes can be produced using this process. This involves growing carefully selected micro organisms (bacteria and fungi) in closed vessels containing a rich broth of nutrients (the fermentation medium) and a high concentration of oxygen. As the microorganisms break down the nutrients, they release the desired enzymes into solution. Due to the development of large-scale fermentation technologies, the production of microbial enzymes accounts for a significant proportion of the biotechnology industry total output. Fermentation takes place in large vessels (fermenter) with volumes of up to 1,000 cubic metres. The fermentation media sterilises nutrients based on renewable raw materials like maize, sugars and soya. Most industrial enzymes are secreted by microorganisms into the fermentation medium in order to break down the carbon and nitrogen sources. Batch-fed and continuous fermentation processes are common. In the batch-fed process, sterilised nutrients are added to the fermenter during the growth of the biomass. In the continuous process, sterilised liquid nutrients are fed into the fermenter at the same flow rate as the fermentation broth leaving the system. This will achieve a steady-state production. Parameters like temperature, pH, oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide formation are measured and controlled to optimize the fermentation process. Firstly, in harvesting enzymes from the fermentation medium one must remove insoluble products, e.g. microbial cells. This is normally done by centrifugation. As most industrial enzymes are extracellular (secreted by cells into the external environment), they remain in the fermented broth after the biomass has been removed. The biomass can be recycled as a fertiliser, but first it must be treated with lime to inactivate the microorganisms and stabilise it during storage. The enzymes in the remaining broth are then concentrated by evaporation, membrane filtration or crystallization depending on their intended application. If pure enzyme preparations are required, they are usually isolated by gel or ion exchange chromatography. Certain applications require solid enzyme products, so the crude powder enzymes are made into granules to make them more convenient to use. Sometimes liquid formulations are preferred because they are easier to handle and dose along with other liquid ingredients. Enzymes used in starch conversion to convert glucose into fructose are immobilised, typically on the surfaces of inert granules held in reaction columns or towers. This is carried out to prolong their working life as these enzymes normally go on working for over a year. Advantages of Submerged Technique Measure of process parameters is easier than with solid-state fermentation. Bacterial and yeast cells are evenly distributed throughout the medium. There is a high water content which is ideal for bacteria. Disadvantages: High costs due to the expensive media Large reactors are needed and the behaviour of the organism cannot be predicted There is also a risk of contamination. A TYPICAL LARGE SCALE MICROBIAL ENZYME PRODUCTION PROCESS Recovery of the enzyme It generally depends upon precipitation from an aqueous solution, although some enzymes may be marketed as stabilized solutions. In the bran process, the enzyme is extracted from the koj i (the name given to the mass of material permeated with the mold mycelium) into an aqueous solution by percolation. In the liquid processes, the microbial cells are filtered from the beer. The enzyme may be precipitated by addition of solvents, such as acetone or aliphatic alcohols, to the aqueous enzyme solution, either directly or after concentration by vacuum evaporation at low temperature. The precipitated enzyme may be filtered and dried at low temperature, for example in a vacuum shelf dryer. The dry enzyme powders may be sold as undiluted concentrates on a potency basis or, for most applications, may be diluted to an established standard potency with an acceptable diluent. Some common diluents are salt, sugar, starch, and wheat flour. Most commercial enzymes are quite stable in the dry form, but some require the presence of stabilizers and activators for maximum stability and efficiency in use. In theory, the fermentative production of microbial enzymes is a simple matter, requiring an appropriate organism grown on a medium of optimum composition under optimum conditions. The stocks in trade of microbial enzyme manufacturers are thus the selected cultures, the composition of media, and the cultural conditions, all of which are usually held confidential. In practice, enzyme manufacturers suffer the samedifficulties in fermentation, frequently in even greater degree, as antibiotics producers. Total loss of fermentation batches may result from contamination, culture variation, failure of cultural control, and other like causes. Furthermore, knowledge and careful application of the best methods for recovery and stabilization APPLICATIONS OF MICROBIAL ENZYMES IN INDUSTRIES Detergents were the first large scale application for microbial enzymes. Bacterial proteinases are still the most important detergent enzymes. Some products have been genetically engineered to be more stable in the hostile environment of washing machines with several different chemicals present. These hostile agents include anionic detergents, oxidising agents and high pH. Amylases are used in detergents to remove starch based stains. Amylases hydrolyse gelatinised starch, which tends to stick on textile fibres and bind other stain components. Cellulases have been part of detergents since early 90s. Cellulase is actually an enzyme complex capable of degrading crystalline cellulose to glucose. In textile washing cellulases remove cellulose microfibrils, which are formed during washing and the use of cotton based cloths. This can be seen as colour brightening and softening of the material. Alkaline cellulases are produced by Bacillus strains and neutral and acidic cellulases by Trichoderma and Humicola fungi. Starch hydrolysis and fructose production The use of starch degrading enzymes was the first large-scale application of microbial enzymes in food industry. Mainly two enzymes carry out conversion of starch to glucose: alpha-amylase cuts rapidly the large alpha-1,4-linked glucose polymers into shorter oligomers in high temperature. This phase is called liquefaction and is carried out by bacterial enzymes. In the next phase called saccharification, glucoamylase hydrolyses the oligomers into glucose. This is done by fungal enzymes, which operate in lower pH and temperature than alpha-amylase. Sometimes additional debranching enzymes like pullulanase are added to improve the glucose yield. Beta-amylase is commercially produced from barley grains and used for the production of the disaccharide maltose. An alternative method to produce fructose is shown in Figure 4. This method is used in Europe and uses sucrose as a starting material. Sucrose is split by invertase into glucose and fructose, fructose separated and crystallized and then the glucose circulated back to the process. Drinks And Brewing Industries Enzymes have many applications in drink industry. The use of chymosin in cheese making to coagulate milk protein was already discussed. Another enzyme used in milk industry is beta-galactosidase or lactase, which splits milk-sugar lactose into glucose and galactose. This process is used for milk products that are consumed by lactose intolerant consumers. Enzymes are used also in fruit juice manufacturing. Fruit cell wall needs to be broken down to improve juice liberation. Pectins are polymeric substances in fruit lamella and cell walls. They are closely related to polysaccharides. The cell wall contains also hemicelluloses and cellulose. Addition of pectinase, xylanase and cellulase improve the liberation of the juice from the pulp. Pectinases and amylases are used in juice clarification. Brewing is an enzymatic process. Malting is a process, which increases the enzyme levels in the grain. In the mashing process the enzymes are liberated and they hydrolyse the starch into soluble fermentable sugars like maltose, which is a glucose disaccharide. Additional enzymes can be used to help the starch hydrolysis (typically alpha-amylases), solve filtration problems caused by beta-glucans present in malt (beta-glucanases), hydrolyse proteins (neutral proteinase), and control haze during maturation, filtration and storage (papain, alpha-amylase and beta-glucanase). Textiles Industries:- The use of enzymes in textile industry is one of the most rapidly growing fields in industrial enzymology. Starch has for a long time been used as a protective glue of fibres in weaving of fabrics. This is called sizing. Enzymes are used to remove the starch in a process called desizing. Amylases are used in this process since they do not harm the textile fibres .The same effect can be obtained with cellulase enzymes. The effect is a result of alternating cycles of desizing and bleaching enzymes and chemicals in washing machines. Laccases are produced by white-rot fungi, which use them to degrade lignin the aromatic polymer found in all plant materials. Laccase is a copper-containing enzyme, which is oxidised by oxygen, and which in an oxidised state can oxidatively degrade many different types of molecules like dye pigments. Pulp And Paper Industry Intensive studies have been carried out during the last twenty years to apply many different enzymes in pulp and paper industry. The major application is the use of xylanases in pulp bleaching. Xylanases liberate lignin fragments by hydrolysing residual xylan. This reduces considerably the need for chlorine based bleaching chemicals. Other minor enzyme applications in pulp production include the use of enzymes to remove fine particles from pulp. This facilitates water removal. In the use of secondary (recycled) cellulose fibre the removal of ink is important. The fibre is diluted to 1% concentration with water, flocculating surfactants and ink solvents added and the mixture is aerated. The ink particles float to the surface. There are reports that this process is facilitated by addition of cellulase enzymes. In paper making enzymes are used especially in modification of starch, which is used as an important additive. Starch improves the strength, stiffness and erasability of paper. The starch suspension must have a certain viscosity, which is achieved by adding amylase enzymes in a controlled process. Pitch is a sticky substance present mainly in softwoods. It is composed of lipids. It is a special problem when mechanical pulps of red pine are used as a raw material. Pitch causes problems in paper machines and can be removed by lipases. This facilitates water removal. In the use of secondary (recycled) cellulose fibre the removal of ink is important in the process Baking Industry :- Similar fibre materials are used in baking than in animal feed. It is therefore conceivable that enzymes also affect the baking process. Alpha-amylases have been most widely studied in connection with improved bread quality and increased shelf life. Both fungal and bacterial amylases are used. Overdosage may lead to sticky dough so the added amount needs to be carefully controlled. One of the motivations to study the effect of enzymes on dough and bread qualities comes from the pressure to reduce other additives. In addition to starch, flour typically contains minor amounts of cellulose, glucans and hemicelluloses like arabinoxylan and arabinogalactan. There is evidence that the use of xylanases decreases the water absorption and thus reduces the amount of added water needed in baking. This leads to more stable dough. Especially xylanases are used in whole meal rye baking and dry crisps common in Scandinavia. Proteinases can be added to improve dough-handling properties; glucose oxidase has been used to replace chemical oxidants and lipases to strengthen gluten, which leads to more stable dough and better bread quality. Various Important Microbial Enzymes Carbohydrases Carbohydrases are enzymes which hydrolyze polysaccharides or oligosaccharides. Several carbohydrases have industrial importance, but the amylases have the greatest commercial application. The various starch-splitting enzymes are known as amylases, the actions of which may be expressed in greatly simplifiedform as follows: The terms liquefying and saccharifying amylases are general classifications denoting the principal types of amylase action. f-Amylase, which is not of microbial origin, is a true saccharifying enzyme, forming maltose directly from starch by cleaving disaccharide units from the open ends of chains. The a-amylases from different sources usually have good liquefying ability, but may vary widely in saccharifying ability and thermal stability. Bacterial amylase preparations generally remain operative at considerably higher temperature than do fungal amylases, and at elevated temperatures give rapid liquefaction of starch. A significant application of the bacterial enzyme is in the continuous process for desizing of textile fabrics Another is in preparing modified starch sizing for textiles and starch coatings for paper High temperature stability is also important in the brewing industry where microbial amylases have found use in supplementing low diastatic malt, and especially for initial liquefaction of adjuncts such as rice and corn grits Additional specific uses for bacterial amylase is in preparing cold water dispersible laundry starches and in removing wall paper. Fungal amylases possess relatively low thermal stability but act rapidly at lower temperatures and produce good saccharification. An enormous potential use for fungal amylase is as a saccharifying agent for grain alcohol fermentation mashes. At least two alcohol plants in this country regularly use fungal amylase for this purpose An extremely important use for fungal amylases isin conversion of partially acid hydrolyzed starch tosweet syrups Amylases find extensive use in baking. Use of fungal amylase by the baker to supplement the diastatic activity of flour is common practice. The fungal amylase has the advantage of low inactivation temperature. This permits use of high levels of the amylase to improve sugar production, which increases gas formation and improves crust color, without danger of excessive dextrinization of the starch during baking Other applications of microbial amylases where both fungal and bacterial enzymes are utilized are in processing cereal products for food dextrin and sugar mixtures and for breakfast foods, for preparation of chocolate and licorice syrups to keep them from congealing, and for recovering sugars from scrap candy of high starch content. Fungal amylases are also used for starch removal for flavoring extracts and for fruit extracts and juices, and in preparing clear, starch-free pectin. Microbial amylases are used for modifying starch in vegetable purees, and in treating vegetables for canning PROTEASES Industrially available proteolytic enzymes produced by microorganisms are usually mixtures of endopeptidases (proteinases) and exopeptidases. In addition to microbial proteases, the plant proteases bromelin, papain, and ficin, and the animal proteases, pepsin and trypsin, have extensive industrial application. Because of the complex structures and high molecular weights of proteins made up of some 20 different amino acids, enzymic proteolysis is extremely complicated. Most proteases are quite specific with regard to which peptide linkages they can split Hence, it is necessary to select the appropriate protease complex or combination of enzymes for specific applications. Usually this can only be determined by trial and error methods. By means of such experimentation, however, many and diverse uses have been found for the various proteases. With proper selection of enzymes, with appropriate conditions of time, temperature, and pH, either limited proteolysis or complete hydrolysis of most proteins to amino acids can be brought about. Microbial proteolytic enzymes from different fungi and bacteria are available. Most fungal proteases will tolerate and act effectively over a wide pH range (about 4 to 8), while with a few exceptions, bacterialproteases generally work best over a narrow range of about pH 7 to 8. Fungal protease has been used for centuries in the orient for the production of soy sauce, tamari sauce, and miso, a breakfast food After maximum enzyme production has taken place, the koji is covered with brine and enzymatic digestion allowed to take place. Limited use is made of this process for making soy sauce in this country also. In these uses, no attempt is made to separate the enzymes from the producing organisms. For most industrial applications, the microbial proteases are extracted from the growth medium as described in an earlier section of this paper. One of the largest uses for fungal protease is in baking bread The proper amount of protease action reduces mixing time and increases extensibility of doughs, and improves grain, texture, and loaf volume. However, excess of protease must be avoided, and the time for enzyme action and quantity of enzyme used must be carefully controlled by the baker or sticky, unmanageable doughs will result. Cereal foods are also treated with proteolytic enzymes to modify their proteins, resulting in better processing