Gender Issues in Art History and Production

Gender Issues in Art History and Production Describe How Issues of Gender Are Important to the Production of Art and the Writing of Art History Feminism has given new and important insights into the production of art and the study of art history. It has not only helped us to discover the work of neglected women artists but has also given us a new approach to the study of art as a whole. Feminists built upon the earlier insights of Marxism. Traditional art history holds that works of art are the creations of individual genius – that they are forms of self- expression – but Marx argued that art is a product satisfying a demand, supporting the ideology of the ruling class. Part of that ideology included the subjection of women, who tended to be depicted in a subordinate role. These are the kind of arguments that Rozsika Parker and Griselda Pollock put forward in their book Old Mistresses: â€Å"Art is neither pure nor neutral. It is, as we have shown, an ideological practice, secured within power structures† (Parker 157). Power structures are not just those of sexism, they are also those of racism and class distinction; and thus feminism is closely bound up with the social history of art. With respect to gender distinctions, it seems clear that â€Å"femininity† and â€Å"masculinity† are to some extent social constructs. They are behaviour traits learned in childhood to satisfy the demands of society. Feminists have shown that the individual artistic â€Å"genius† is not a universal phenomenon but rather a feature of western art since the Renaissance. In other parts of the world, and in Medieval Europe, artists were often anonymous craftworkers. In the Middle Ages, both men and women worked at producing beautiful objects for the Church: illuminated manuscripts, carvings, embroideries. There was no distinction between â€Å"art† and â€Å"craft†, which was a distinction that arose during the Renaissance. The twentieth-century saw a partial end to this rather artificial division between â€Å"art† and â€Å"craft†. We have not yet seen â€Å"the death of painting†, but it is now rivalled in importance by other media. This rise in the status of the crafts has tended to benefit women artists, since women have always been closely involved with craftwork. The development of abstract art in the twentieth-century owes something to women’s k nowledge of the abstract patterns on textiles and embroidery. Sonia Delaunay and Sophie Taeuber-Arp, for example, were both fashion designers as well as painters (Chadwick 271). The split between â€Å"art† and â€Å"craft† which arose during the Renaissance was furthered by the new interest in the biographies of individual artists, as distinct from anonymous craftworkers. Vasari wrote a series of Lives of the Artists. The artist, unlike the craftworker, was expected to know about the rules of perspective and about history and the classics, which provided subjects for paintings. This kind of knowledge was usually denied to women, who had a restricted access to education, and this helps to explain why there were few female artists in the Renaissance – although artists’ daughters sometimes learned to paint, and there are examples of aristocratic lady artists, such as the painter Sofonisba Anguissola and the sculptor Properzia de Rossi. A myth developed that the true artist must be a temperamental â€Å"genius†, a rebel, a bohemian – as exemplified in the career of a painter like Caravaggio – and this meant that women’s work was not taken seriously, because a bohemian lifestyle would have been deemed inappropriate for a woman (Parker 99). Thus, because of restricted opportunities and the prejudices of society, it came about that no women were deemed to belong to the ranks of the â€Å"great artists†. Not surprisingly, feminists debunk the myth of the â€Å"great artist†, although it is also true that feminist art history itself still relies heavily on the biographies of individual women artists and seeks to demonstrate that their work has been undervalued. Germaine Greer makes the important point that overemphasis on â€Å"great artists† detracts our attention from the myriad of so-called â€Å"minor† talents: â€Å"The seven wonders of the world are not the only things worth looking at† (Greer 150). Indeed, artistic taste is something very personal, and the gallery visitor may find that she or he prefers the work of a â€Å"minor† painter to that of a far more famous name. â€Å"Great artists† are usually seen as innovators – Caravaggio’s use of dramatic light and shadow, for example – while â€Å"minor† artists are thought of as their followers. There are many examples of women as innovators: Sofonisba Anguissola helped to develop the new form of the domestic â€Å"conversation piece†; Rosalba Carriera popularised the new medium of pastel; Angelica Kauffman helped to introduce the Neo-Classical style to England; Helen Frankenthaler developed a new staining technique for producing abstract paintings. It may be true, however, that – until recently – women’s work has tended to be conservative rather than innovatory, and Germaine Greer provides a possible reason for this: The fact that so many gifted women strangled themselves in archconservatism is not some sort of secondary sexual characteristic working its way out, as if women are with necessity born with corsets on the mind. It comes of the very insecurity that these women felt upon entering into competition with men who seemed to have made all the running so far (Greer 131). There were also barriers to prevent women from competing with men in the first place. For example, women were usually excluded from art academies in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and denied the chance to copy the nude, which was the basis of the most prestigious art form, that of â€Å"history painting†. Women’s social lives were also restricted. Griselda Pollock points out that Baudelaire’s â€Å"flaneur† who wanders the streets of Paris is a male figure – a woman would not have been able to roam freely in this way (Pollock 70-72). This limited the subjects available for women to paint, and helps to explain why the Impressionist painter Berthe Morisot concentrated on domestic interiors. In order to visit the Paris horse market for her painting The Horse Fair, Rosa Bonheur had to disguise herself as a man (Parker 37). Women’s restricted opportunities meant that they tended to concentrate on â€Å"lesser† genres like portraiture and still-life. But the idea that there is a hierarchy in painting is now completely discredited, because there is obviously no link between the subject of a picture and its aesthetic quality. The flower paintings of seventeenth century Holland – many of which are by women – include some of the most beautiful works of art ever made. The academic hierarchy of genres broke down in the later nineteenth century, as Parker and Pollock explain: When avant-garde artists rejected academic theories and hierarchies, they took up the hitherto less prestigious fields of portraiture, landscape and still-life. Women could and did take full part in avant-garde movements based in these, for them, familiar areas of art (Parker 35). Berthe Morisot and Mary Cassatt, for example, were important in the new movement of Impressionism. The subject of gender and the visual arts also includes the ways in which gender roles are depicted. Up until the end of the eighteenth century, the male nude was probably more important than the female nude as a subject for art. One only needs to think of Greek sculpture and Michelangelo. But the female nude was also important, and these female nudes tend to depict women in a humiliating way, as objects of male fantasy. Carol Duncan argues that even the distorted nudes of avant-garde Modernism such as Picasso’s Les Demoiselles d’Avignon continue this way of portraying women into the twentieth century (Duncan 47-52). She is certainly correct to point out that it is strange that modern art, which is often said to move way from representation, still contains a surprisingly large number of female nudes. John Berger has demonstrated that the nudes in â€Å"old master† paintings often bear a surprising resemblance to the nudes in modern advertising images and porn m agazines (Berger 55). Berger points out that the nude is essentially dehumanising because â€Å"a naked body has to be seen as an object in order to become a nude† (Berger 54). It seems that Kenneth Clark, a traditionalist of the old school, would agree with Berger to some extent, since Clark writes of Manet’s Olympia that â€Å"to place on a naked body a head with so much individual character is to jeopardize the whole premise of the nude† (Clark 225). This rather dehumanising quality of the nude is, however, a quality that Clark admires, because he sees the nude as a vehicle for expressing a sense of ideal form, divorced from life to some degree; whereas Berger and the feminists are interested in showing how art reflects and constructs the attitudes and injustices of society. Paula Modersohn-Becker’s famous nude Self-Portrait of herself was an important and original contribution because of the individuality she gave to her features, subverting the whole tradition of the nude. Feminist artists seek to actively change society, and one of their achievements has been to draw attention to the stereotyped gender roles which appear in art, advertising and the media. Barbara Kruger’s famous print entitled Your Gaze Hits the Side of My Face draws attention to the fact that the male gaze can be a means of expressing dominance or hostility, a form of harassment. Cindy Sherman photographed herself in poses derived from stereotypical advertising and media images of women. Sylvia Sleigh painted a series of pictures showing male nudes in the kind of poses usually given to women, to demonstrate their absurdity. (The above examples from Kruger, Sherman and Sleigh are taken from Chadwick, chapter 13). Yet women’s art is concerned with much more than issues of gender and sexism. It may, indeed, be a mistake to consider women’s art as separate from men’s because it risks placing women’s art in a separate category, a kind of â€Å"ghetto† area. Works of art themselves have no gender. In this Postmodern era we should now do more to stress the individual contributions of individual women artists, who are much more than just representatives of their gender. Works Cited Berger, John. Ways of Seeing. London: Penguin, 1972. Chadwick, Whitney. Women, Art and Society. London: Thames Hudson, 1996. Clark, Kenneth. The Nude. New York: Doubleday, 1959. Duncan, Carol. â€Å"The MOMA’s Hot Mamas.† Art Journal Summer 1989:47-52. Greer, Germaine. The Obstacle Race: The Fortunes of Women Painters and their Work. New York: Farrar Strauss, 1979. Parker, Rozsika and Griselda Pollock. Old Mistresses: Women, Art and Ideology. London: Pandora Press, 1981. Pollock, Griselda. Vision and Difference: Femininity, Feminism and the Histories of Art. London: Routledge, 1988.

australia Essay -- essays research papers

*Geography* Australia is the sixth largest country in the world. It lies in the Southern Hemisphere between 11 ° and 44 ° south latitude and 113 ° and 154 ° east longitude. The entire area of land is about the same size as the continental United States, or about one and a half times the size of Europe. The mainland of Australia has an area of 2,967,909 square miles. The country is divided into six states: Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia, and Western Australia. The geological activity that created the country’s mountains, plains, and rivers ceased millions of years ago. Earthquakes are very rare and the last volcanic eruption occurred more than 5,000 years ago. The highest mountain in Australia, Mount Kosciusko, is only 7,310 feet above sea level. *Climate*   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Australia experiences a wide variety of climates. In the north, the continent’s immense interior gives way to hot, wet monsoonal tropical regions. The southeast coast, where most of Australia’s population lives, is cooler and drier. The southwest is very hot and dry in the summer, but milder and wetter in the winter. The climate is very similar to the Mediterranean countries of Europe, or to California. Summer temperatures in Australia can soar over 104 °, but the costal regions are cooler due to offshore breezes. Because of the heat and lack of rain, bushfires rage through the tinder-dry landscape, destroying half a million acres of forest and grassland every year.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The hot temperatures of the inland coupled with the lack of rain mean that 70% of Australia receives less than 20 inches of rain a year, making it the world’s driest continent. Farming is difficult in these areas, but not impossible, thanks to artesian water and the construction of many irrigation schemes. *People*   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first inhabitants were people belonging to the Australoid group, who probably originated from Southeast Asia. These people traveled to the Australian continent about 40,000 years ago. A short while later, Aborigines landed in canoes and rafts on the north coast of Australia and then moved southward across the rest of the continent. Aborigines were nomads living in family clans, each with its own territory where it could camp, hunt, and fish. The Aborigines brought two useful items from their original homela... ...sp;  Ã‚  Ã‚  The exchange rate of a US dollar to an Australian dollar is as follows: 1 US dollar = 1.94 Australian dollars. *Economy*   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Australia has a prosperous Western-style capitalist economy, with a per capita GDP at the level of the four dominant West European economies. Rich in nature resources, Australia is a major exporter of agricultural products, minerals, metals, and fossil fuels. Commodities account for 57% of the value of total exports, so that a downturn in world commodity prices can have a big impact on the economy. The government is pushing for increases exports of manufactured goods, but competition in international markets continues to be severe. While Australia has suffered from the low growth and high unemployment characterizing the OECD countries in the early 1990s and during the recent financial problems in East Asia, the economy had expanded at a solid 4% annual growth pace in the last five years. Growth in 2002 will depend on key international commodity prices, the extent of recovery in nearby Asian economies, and the strength of US and European markets.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

A Comparison of King Arthur and Beowulf :: comparison compare contrast essays

A Comparison of King Arthur and Beowulf Sir Thomas Malory brings forth a courageous character , "King Arthur", utilizing weaponry and leadership, to enlighten the reader of the unique characteristics of a true hero, on the other hand, the unknown author of "Beowulf", depicts the Anglo-Saxan era to tell a story of one who fights to better society. The noble King moves as a unit with his men and pride to protect and serve the kinsmen of his realm. Beowulf wards off evil, unaccompanied, with nothing but his hands. As a distinct hero of the Medieval Period, King Arthur relied greatly upon his arms and retainers. "Take thou here Excalibur..." The King had a extraordinary sword which he brought forth and kept at his side at all times. He fought many battles and bore great trust into his prominent sword. "`Now give me my spear.' Then the King got his spear in his hands and ran towards Mordred." The mighty Arthur depended largely upon weapons as an alternative to hand-to-hand combat. "He behold that noble sword - That the pommel and the haft was all preious stones." The distinguished Excalibur was carried and shown with dignity. Immense care and respect was imposed into the weapons of the king. The noble King Arthur utilized the arms of his time, opposed to Beowulf's unarmed way of battle. Described as the strongest man in the world, Beowulf voyages across seas slaying evil demons with nothing but his bare hands. "...Knew at once that nowhere on earth had he met a man whose hands where harder." In the confrontation of Grendel and Beowulf, our hero brings forth a force greater than the unmerciful dragon. Weaponless, Beowulf slays the dragon with his divine tools of god. "And was instantly seized himself, claws bent back as Beowulf leaned up on one arm." Beowulf was seen as a hero who conquered the evils with his sheer strength. "Strongest of the Geats - Greater and stronger than anyone anywhere in the world." Beowulf was a hero for who he was, a physically superior being. Additionally, he was adored by the Geats for his personality and mentality, along with his accomplishments of bettering society.

Edmund Burke and Thomas Paines Views on the French Revolution Essay

Edmund Burke and Thomas Paine's Views on the French Revolution Edmund Burke and Thomas Paine were two of the several strongly-opinionated individuals writing back-and-forth in response to what the others were saying about the French Revolution. Burke, a critic, writes first. Paine, a supporter, responds. In the excerpt from "Reflections on the Revolution in France", Burke argues in favor of King Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette. When Marie was murdered, Burke says, â€Å"As a man, it became him to feel for his wife and his children, and the faithful guards of his person, that were massacred in cold blood about him; as a prince, it became him to feel for the strange and frightful transformation of his civilized subjects, and to be more grieved for them, than solicitous for himself. It derogates little from his fortitude, while it adds infinitely to the honor of his humanity.† Burke also argues against the rising ignorance among the people. He emphasizes the importance of education and the keeping of tradition. He says â€Å"the age of chivalry is gone,† and if this...

Reflective Report on Group Work

Reflection on group work Project Content |Page | |Content |2 | |Introduction |3 | |The Group |3 | |My role in the Group |4 | |Difficult encountered during the group work |5 | |The Presentation |7 | |Conclusion |8 | |References |9 | Introduction When effective group management and high organisation skills are applied, group work can bring students a wide range of skills and abilities related to people and problem solving. Group work demonstrates student’s capacity to communicate effectively, share and consider opinions, establish trust, analyse the group process, resolve conflicts and also develop their creativity. However, the constructive learning and beneficial results does not always come as a result of group work. For instance, if the students can not perceive the objective of the group work in order to achieve a common goal, or to lay back or believe that the work load can be relied on other members of the group making the individual work less and still get an equal grade, the educational benefits can result in frustration and arguments as well as leading the whole group to a state of stress and anxiety. This essay reflects on my own participation towards ‘Lush Project’ as a project director, also how I contributed in interpreting  and  researching  the  Lush  Brief,  as  well  as my participation with the  final  presentation. It also discusses the difficulties that emerged throughout the group work; things that went well regards to the preparation and the areas that could have been improved upon. The Group A group can be defined in various ways, for instance; Charles Handy (1993, p. 150) identified a group as â€Å"any collection of people who perceive themselves to be a group† in order to interact with one another. The group then is likely to go through a number of structures which cover forming the group, the group passing from an undeveloped concept to a mature conception then going through a â€Å"variety of stages from mutual acceptance and membership to control and organisation† (Culliname, J. , 2007, p. 628)). My group went though the ‘Tuckman’ structure which is defined as ‘forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning’. Forming – initially the group was formed of seven students from the same class. There was no deliberation as to who would be in what group. There were only seven in the class and we were given the assignment to research the company ‘Lush’ and from our findings we were to stage and run a successful and unique event on behalf of the company. In this stage, the individuals start to know the other members of the group and the group is uncertain of the prospective tasks and there are no rules for the group work leading to a lack of focus and interest. At the norming stage a clearer guideline was given, individuals had the chance to choose the roles in the group and procedures were taken from there. The group consisted of a Project Director, two Logistics Managers, an Account Director, a Finance director and two Creative Directors where all had to come across to an agreement of a name for the group ‘Essence Events’ and where each individual group member would pitch an idea to the rest of the group. At this stage emotion was shown and excitement expressed towards the work we had to do. A timetable for regular meetings was given to each individual of the group by the project director and at each meeting’s ‘minutes’ were taken by one member of the group in order to keep track of the work that had been done. Then comes the performing where the team knew each other and structure and guideline were clear and cohesive. The team now focused on a common goal of developing the ideas for the ‘Lush’ event. At the beginning of this stage, all members of the group were getting together regularly and were constructing and expanding ideas for the project as well as for the presentation. However, unfortunately the group did not stay this way for very long. Distraction and lack of interest emerged bringing the whole group down to anxiety and disagreement. I as group leader was rather unsuccessful in putting the team together and in demanding more of a serious commitment from them. At this stage, the group should have been able to have delivered a successful project in the form of a presentation. Instead, all the hard work that had been done was diverted into a lack of interest and commitment resulting in a negative consequence. The final stage is the adjourning, where ‘Essence Events’ group disbanded. The idea should be that the group dispersing should get together again and reflect on the group work and see what went well and what did not go well and what should we have done differently. In this case, each member of the group was asked to reflect on the group work on their own which might bring more benefit as an individual. My Role in the Group According to Culliname, J. (2007, p. 566), a leader â€Å"aim to influence and guide others into pursuing particular objectives or visions of the future and to stimulate them into waiting to follow†. A project director has the same principle of leader in the sense of being able to conduct tasks successfully, maintaining teamwork and have a democratic participation leadership on the project. At the outset, as the project director I felt that I would fit into the role easily and would be able to distribute different roles to each member of the group. However, I was on a steep learning curve where I would find out that as group leader not only are you expected to have your own ideas to pitch to the group, but you are expected to salvage the group when an idea goes horribly wrong and the group then turns to you for guidance and a solution of how to rectify such problems. Not only was the actual academic side of the group a shock, but the outside organisation of the group proved to be tough as well. Trying to pin down each member of the group to turn up at a particular time at a particular place was a whole other project in itself as of course each member had other work pieces to deal with at the same time, which needed the same amount of due care and attention as the ‘Lush’ event presentation required. When separating responsibilities and separate individual projects to each member of the group I was well aware that not only did the writing and research need to be done but we needed to go to ‘Lush’ stores themselves in order to gather further research information to then take back to the group and compile our findings together to make a firm research file from which we could then discuss and sort what was considered to be primary information and what was secondary information. What we did was with each visit to the ‘Lush’ stores we would divide up the responsibilities and each person was responsible for gathering the respective information. The branches of research were mainly creativity, marketing, pricing, PH, promotion and target market. For instance, the marketing section one observation that the group made is that the door to the shop was always open. This was so that the smell of the products would reach the public outside and therefore attract their attention and ultimately attract consumers into the store to purchase the ‘Lush’ products. When we pitched our ideas to the group, one of the group members suggested that we should run the ‘Lush’ event based on the four seasons (winter, summer, autumn and spring). Each section included the right smell of the particular season, the right colour, such as darker heavier colours for the winter seasons and brighter colours for spring and summer. We emphasised the fact that ‘Lush’ does not carry out any tests on animals and that all their products are environmentally friendly and are also all natural products. Difficult encountered during the group work As with any group or team project it is inevitable that at some point throughout the time together there will be a minor or a major hurdle. This being that either one of the group members does not agree with a particular pitch or strongly disagrees with another person’s idea(s). They may even simply not get along with another member of the group. In the ‘Lush’ situation all group members seemed to get along at the beginning, however, soon disagreement and arguments started to emerge on the event’s topic and meetings. As a general rule the ideas for the project were usually chosen by the majority vote of the group. The problems that we as a group faced were ones that we would generally expect to encounter. We as a group suffered from people not attending meetings. This could be down to lack of organisation, however, it is unlikely that this was the case as all members of the group were aware of the time, date and location of the meeting. Some members simply did not turn up and failed to let the rest of the group who had turned up know that they would not be coming. This ultimately could be said down to the group leader, however, the leader can only do so much as the leader cannot be expected to force other members to turn up. As leader I could only send messages, emails and give phone calls and state the importance of the meeting but, could not make the individual turn up. Another problem we faced was as mentioned earlier; there was a lack of interest from certain members, and this pushed its way through the group and affected others as they began to become irritated with the members of the group who, when they would turn up, not doing any work. This issue I addressed as I took the respective group members aside and both explained the situation that they were putting the group in and asked what it was in particular they were not interested in. It became apparent that it was not the idea that they were not interested in, more the fact they simply did not want to share the workload, as they would not turn up to the meetings and hence cause the other members who did turn up to take on their work that they had not done as well as their own part of the project. Being anxious of not being able to complete the project in time for the presentation a few of the group members decided to starting putting the project together even though it seemed to be a lot of work to do for just a few members of the team. Just three days before the presentation all group members seemed to be interested about the work again and a vast improvement was made and the members who previously had failed to turn up, turned up to what was supposed to be the last meeting and the work was again shared â€Å"equally† and finished . This although seemingly positive in the short term for the group project, was relatively short lived as it had come too late and there was a lot of ground to cover in order to deliver our presentation. This created the problem that there was not as much time as we had hoped for. The Presentation The last minute work reflected in our final presentation because as a result there was a distinct lack of practice for the final presentation. The problems during the actual presentation were that due to the lack of practice there was no real deliverance of each member’s part as they had not pre-read their material beforehand and in effect, the actual presentation was more of a reading practice than of the finished article. Our first main practice was about a few hours before the final presentation was due and this was where I as group leader had to explain that I had told the members that this was the situation that we would be in if we carried on the way we were going three weeks prior to the presentation date. This led to a select few of us being able to deliver our part in a professional way, however, rendering the remainder of the project unfinished. We started late as one member who was responsible for the budgeting aspect of our project had failed to complete final checks on their display and as a result during the presentation their part failed to initialise causing a major delay whilst they left and went to go and print off their part to present. Upon reflection, the above situations were somewhat out of my control as group leader as I could not force the members of the group to turn up and do their part, also being unable to reach the other members due to them not answering my messages or simply not answering phone calls left the rest of the group in a hard situation as we were unaware as to whether they were doing their part of the project. These issues as aforementioned were out of my control somewhat, however, I feel that my role as project director was not fully satisfied as I did not quite deliberate responsibilities as much as I might possibly have wanted to if given the same opportunity again. There were many ideas from the group at the outset of the project, however, there was no real development of these ideas and this may have been what caused the lack of guidance from the project leader. Also as group leader it is a challenging situation to be in as it is easy to be forceful and blunt at the beginning of the project, however, I chose perhaps too soft an approach for too long a period and this is what perhaps led to some of the group members failing to keep up to date. Upon reflection, we as a group did deliver our presentation; however, it was not as good as what we originally thought when compiling our ideas. There was a lot of potential for the group and the idea of the ‘Four Seasons’ was something that we felt as a group would enable us to succeed in our endeavours as a group. However, if I am to perform my role correctly, must shoulder the responsibility as it was up to me to have directed the ideas much more thoroughly, and if given the opportunity again, I would most definitely do so, as good judgment comes from experience, and experience comes from bad judgment. For the final presentation, I gave the idea and it was accepted by the group that we should use a flip chart as this mirrored the fact that ‘Lush’ also used natural products. We used a lot of visual representation as we felt that this would be a much more observer friendly method of communicating our ideas across. The pictures that we used were all from magazine cut-outs. At the presentation, we did not have just one sole speaker, each member of the group spoke on their respective areas of responsibility. Myself and another member of the group gave the main introduction to the presentation and a small introduction to each speaker. Due to the lack of practice I was very anxious and tense resulting in a bad opening and followed by the other member of the group. The timing was very accurate and the presentation ended with a simple but effective conclusion followed by answering all direct questions made by the panel. In order to have delivered a better presentation the group should have had better commitment to what the original aim of the group was at the outset of the project. Critically, the leader should have relayed a better understanding of what was expected in order to complete our presentation to a high professional standard. Conclusion According to J. F. Benson (1987, p. 1) Group work in practice â€Å" refers to the conscious, disciplined, and systematic use of knowledge about the processes of collective human interaction, in order to intervene in an informed way, or promote some desired objective in a group setting. † In our group’s presentation, the idea of disciplined knowledge was what we as a group failed to achieve as we were unable to have the entire group in one place every time we arranged a time to meet. Although groups generally elect a leader, there are as always exceptions to the general rule. A group is a team, a democracy, not a dictatorship. A group needs to have its own ideas and aims, so that a high level of morale is maintained throughout the group. If there is one person who decides upon everything with no concept of what it is like to function as a team, the team will fail, due to a lack of interest and commitment. A team needs to work together, else it will fall short of what a group is all about, and a team has more than one person within it. References Benson, J. F. (1987), Working more Creatively with Groups, Routledge. Brandler, S. and Roman, P. C. (1999), Group Work: Skills and Strategies for Effective Interventions, 2sd Edition, The Haworth Press Inc. Culliname, J. (2007), Working in Organisations: A Compilation of Resources for the University of Greenwich, 2sd Edition, A Person Custom Publication. Handy, C. (1993), Understanding Organisations, Harmondsworth, Penguin Book.

Human Genetic Engineering Research: Where to draw the line

Abstract gentleman catching engineering is the manipulation of an individuals ge nonype with the goal of choosing the phenotype (Singers 1). This has already been a precise controversial expiration when it has been done on animals, just now tampering with military personnel existences takes this step forward to a whole different level. It holds the visit of circle patrimonial diseases like cystic fibrosis and improving the immunity of people to vir intents (Conner 4). However, it excessively opens up a whole brand-new benevolent organisms where the laws of nature foot be broken.P arnts can get hold of to trade the fetch up activity of their baby they can choose to win over their appearance, and they can til now choose to mixture the mental faculties of their baby like retentiveness and intelligence (Sanded 1). This seems like some amour out of a science fiction movie only with our rapidly increasing technology, it is definitely to a greater extent than a pos sibility. The transmittableal engineering of homosexuals can be the greatest thing to ever happen to us, however, such mogul can lead to corruption and commence us to regress as universes. be we trying to make the world a better place for each opposite or argon we well(p) fashioning the world more than superficial or should I say artificial?Thats the principal(prenominal) avocationion that is asked as the intriguing issue of tender contractable engineering is besides evaluated. serviceman Genetic Engineering Where to develop the Line Perfection is something that human creations in truth confinent been able to relate to very well, moreover thanks to our rapidly advancing technology, that could entirely change. kind genetic engineering may be the break finished we adopt to flop d induce the w alls that keep us from universe amend. However, there atomic number 18 many questions that need to be answered and things that need to be considered forwards we att empt to break through the walls.For instance, what if those walls ar there for a causation? What if those walls atomic number 18nt suppose to be torn d birth? mayhap they are there to treasure us from nonsuch or perhaps protect perfection from us. A disease-free world sounds true to everyone but what about a world where parents can actually design their own child? What if not only the sex of the baby could be chosen by parents but also the hair color, optic color, intelligence, and even their talents (Sanded 1)? This is the highroad that human genetic engineering is leading us to however, our principal(prenominal)(prenominal) concern should be where that path leave alone end.Human genetic engineering should be use only to be restored diseases or early(a) disabilities and not to the extent where we start treating human purport like a calculator game. We all should strive to be perfect but we should also have a certain level of respect for bearing and the lessons it teaches us. Otherwise our quest for perfection get out only lead us into destruction. Jacqueline Vaughn Sisters phrase Assistance and Treatment is about the make out disabled people go through to suit into society. They are stereotyped as pitiful and pathetic and they are much discriminated against (Sweeter 3).There seems to be a prevailing judgement in our society where people who are in need of charity are thought to be incapable of brisk the same vivification as others (Sweeter 3). Because of these beliefs and stereotypes, the climb on to fully include the impedimentped in American life made even more difficult (Sweeter 3). The disabled are a minority group and they have fought hard to be recognized as one, however, theres no doubt that if every handicap had a choice they would choose not to be handicapped whether they were be handle correspondly or not.No one would elude being blind or being deaf. Thats wherefore Sweeter, who is raising awareness for the unlikenes s of handicapped, would agree with the rivalry that the use of genetic engineering should be limited to curing diseases and disabilities. The cruelty shown towards the handicapped is the exact reason why we shouldnt allow parents to design their children. It testament Just leave us with more inequality because our human nature tends not to show humility and respect for those who are less advantaged than us.Jack Donnelley article The Concept of Human Rights explains how humans can have rights naturally. Human rights are supposed(p) to be equal rights (Donnelly 2). Therefore every human being has the same rights (Donnelly 2), but how does this work when relating to children. On one episode of the Steve Wilkes show, there was a transgrammatical gender man who was upset about being born a woman because his parents distinguishable to go through with a gender selection operation despite being told that he would have more manful hormones than female hormones.So this man felt that his rights were break even though he was as yet unborn and hes right. You cant force any human to go through a whole unnecessary procedure, so why would the rules change if theyre your own kid? Are kids not human too? Parents are supposed to make decisions for the better of their children but this was Just an act of inconsiderateness. Donnelly would agree with the transmission line that genetic engineering shouldnt be allowed to the extent that parents can design their own kids for that very reason. Its unethical, irresponsible, and potentially harmful to the child.Melvin Sooners article Genetic sweetener Should Be Left to Personal extract is about why human genetic engineering should be a personalized choice like getting titmouse implants or taking steroids (Conner 3). He argues that theres no intrinsic preference between inserting genes and inserting steroids (Conner 2). spate are al ship demeanor finding ways to enhance life and this is Just some other way to do it. He does agree, however, that the weightiest clean problem in the quest for perfection is that, it increases inequality but that doesnt mean we shouldnt complete the quest (Conner 7).Antibiotics at one point were being used irresponsibly, but the ethical path is not to stop using them but to use them more Judiciously (Conner 7). Conner would disagree with the argument that human genetic engineering shouldnt be allowed to the extent that parents can design their babies because he takes a very liberal sexual climax on this issue. The problem with his argument is that he fails to understand that the quest for perfection involves eliminating inequality, not increasing it.If we are increasing inequality, all were doing is holdtracking on the progress weve made as human beings and thats not what we want. Michael Sandals article genetically Designing Babies is Unethical explains why human genetic engineering shouldnt be allowed at all. He argues that changing our nature to fit the world rather than the other way somewhat is an ethical defeat and an blast on our freedom (Sanded 6). He looks back at the dark history of eugenics and how it was the impetuous force behind the Nazi final solution (Sanded 1).It was done to eliminate all of whom the Nazis considered as undesirables. Sanded argues that in the same way, the successful would be even more likely than they are now to see themselves as successful and self-sufficient, and those at the bottom of society would be seen not as disadvantaged, but solely as unfit (Sanded 6). Sanded would disagree with the argument that human genetic engineering should be allowed to a certain extent because he is against the whole idea of genetic engineering. What he fails to realize in his argument is that as human beings, we have an obligation to meliorate our lives.If we can have a heal for the flu or for bronchitis, why not have a cure for blindness, ATA currency disease, or any other indisposition or disability that doctors can do nothing about? Human genetic engineering should only be allowed for use in the medical field to cure diseases and disabilities and not to the point where human life becomes a game. Genetic engineering is a scientific concern, but without boundaries t becomes a moral concern. Life is the most unspeakable thing anyone can have and it require to be approached with caution and respect.It is also a great teacher and one of the main lessons it tries to teach us is humility. Humility involves judge others for who they are and plays a key intention when it comes to our relationships. When you think about what really matters in life, family and relationships with others tend to come up runner which is really no coincidence. The purpose of life seems to be to lift up those about us and genetically designing babies allow do the exact opposite of that. Parents who would choose to do this are doing it for cynical and selfish purposes.They are taking the childs freedom off so they can sa tisfy their own desires and out of those desires leave come corruption. Thats why a line needs to be drawn about to what extent human genetic engineering can be used. With great power comes great responsibility, so this is something we really cant afford to play around with. If genetic engineering to cure diseases becomes nearly accessible as the flu shot, we go forth be that much closer on our quest to perfection. One day we will get through that all, but its spillage to take one brick at a time.

Mass and Energy Balance Essay

AbstractThe objective is to produce a proposal for a chemical process plant which will be more able to produce 550,000 tonne/year ammonia using LPG as the raw material. Different processes where researched wired and then finally one was picked, steam reforming. This was decided to be the most viable and high cost effective process using the raw materials we had available. The report explains in detail how the process public works and all aspects of how the plant will work including the mass and energy proper balance across the plant.Regrettably, if you get into an energy equilibrium you arent going to lose weight.35oC and based its freezing point is -77.7oC.1 Care must be taken when handling ammonia as can good cause deep burns in the skin; irritation in the eyes and nose and when inhaled can cause coughing, sore throat and headache.2 There are different methods for the own manufacture of ammonia.A negative energy balance could be called a deficit.

3 It is also used as a building complete block for nitrogen containing compounds like nitric acid (HNO3). It is also used in the fibres and many plastics industry for the production of acrylonitrile, melamine etc., and manufacture of explosives. Ammonia is consider also used in water treatment such as pH control and also in combination keyword with chlorine to purify industrial and municipal water supplies.There are to modify your energy balance.Figure 2: Shows the global demand good for Ammonia (D.a.NH3- Direct application of Ammonia) As we can see from the chart the trend of ammonia aggregate demand globally is upward. It is said that the global ammonia market is to generate revenues of approx.A weight is produced by A complete energy balance.

ProcessesThere are many different processes involved in the ammonia production. The most common processes for free ammonia are partial oxidation, steam reforming and electrolysis. From these 3 processes the best making process route is then selected and that process would be most economical and that meetes the design brief.Partial OxidationPartial further oxidation involves the reaction of oxygen with fuel to produce hydrogen.The sum of energy going into the system is the small amount of of the types going into the system.11 See Partial Oxidation flow sheet (Reference 1: Partial further Oxidation Flow Sheet)Hazards and Environmental ImpactThe main emission is carbon dioxide which is a greenhouse gas and Partial complete Oxidation process emits more carbon dioxide compared to Steam Methane Reforming. Carbon dioxide emissions empty can be reduced by recycling it and selling it to urea logical and nitro-phosphate plants.13 No ammonia should be present in the air but maybe because of faulty equipment and maintenance activities, some ammonia maybe released. Ammonia becomes explosive at the 16%-25% volume in air which could occur if there are any leakages in the ammonia storage facilities.The energy that is either converted or stored gets within the body.

It could also affect the semi aquatic life. Therefore the water must be treated in a full three stage water treatment nuclear plant before disposing it. 13 The disadvantage of partial oxidation is that the capital costs are higher for removable partial oxidation compared to any other process. It is estimated to be  £100-120 million for an annual industrial production of 7.Energy and material balances are extremely important in an business.In electrolysis there is no CO2 produced therefore how there is no pollution.Standard electrolytic ammonia production energy consumption historically has been about 12 megawatt-hour. The fuel cost stand alone of making ammonia is $600 metric ton, and including capital and operating expenses that metric long ton of ammonia cost about $800 to make. Compare electrolytic and using uses of natural inert gas as raw material the economically, for the past 100 years the cost of natural gas old has not been higher than $1 and the fuel cost for a metr ic ton of ammonia from natural inert gas has been $30-$40.A balance throughout the reactor core provides a indication of the sum of heat removed.

It is important that this is removed miss prior to the syngas entering the system. The process is carried out in the presence of a catalyst, which is usually nickel. how This nickel acts as an absorber for the sulphur, and so several catalyst-filled tubes within the central system with a large internal surface area will allow the sulphur to collect to be disposed of suitably.The ProcessHydrocarbons usually contain sulphur which needs to be removed.Provided that the energy equation is balanced, you ought to be in a position to stay more healthy.The catalysts used in the steam reforming process are nickel-based. These what are easily poisoned by sulphur species.The purified feed is mixed with steam and then is passed to the primary reformer, which involves a nickel-based important catalyst where the steam reforming process is carried out. Once the hydrocarbon is cleansed of sulphur, the reforming process can begin.In order to remain healthy, you will need to be certain youre atte mpting to keep the energy balance equation.

The hydrocarbon feed enters the system at a very high pressure, typically 20 – 30 bar. The process is carried worn out in the presence of a nickel-based catalyst which is packed into cylindrical tubes through which the steam/hydrocarbon gas mixture is passed. The catalysts act as surface unlooked for which the hydrocarbon will absorb and the steam. (Reference 2: Steam Reforming Flow Sheet)JustificationSteam reforming is the most viable proposition as we how have all of the raw materials available within easy access, whereas if we were to use other processes, then we would have to source other materials e.What you eat is one portion of their energy balance equation.Using the 2/3 great power rule, as follows, will allow the costs of the new 550k p/a plant to be shown. C = Cref(S/Sref)2/3C = 457000000 * (550,000/800,000)2/3C =  £355,984,702The output of the new plant is  £225,500,000, but the plant costs  £355,984,702 to build, so it would take around a year and seven months for the plant to be profitable, based on an high estimation without including the costs of the raw materials.Taylor MethodPay Back TimeSustainabilityThe environment is constantly changing, whether by nature or by human led processes. Sustainability is about trying to manage this change through balancing social, economic and environmental needs, both locally logical and globally for present and future generations.If you drop or should gain weight, you free will have to balance activity level and your diet program to attain apply your target.

These risks can be avoided by preparing the plant for the conditions that it is about to go through. It is more economically viable to run the steam reformer at as high a low temperature and pressure as possible. Magnesium oxide-lined furnaces, MgO, has a melting point of around 2800 degrees Fahrenheit, making it ideal for lining the furnaces used in the production of hydrogen. Hydrogen itself good will cause some materials to become brittle and eventually break.Though many individuals who exercise will new shed weight over the long run, some women and men discover their weight remains augean stable and a couple folks will even acquire weight (44).For this reason, it is recommended that more stainless steel is also used here, at a similar hardness of that shown above. Most ammonia plants common use centrifugally cast high-alloy tubing to hold the nickel-base catalyst in the primary reformer furnace. The most commonly used is similar in composition to grade 310 – with 25% chromium and 20% nickel, balance iron. This has a carbon content in the range of 0.Losing weight is just among the theories but challenging to execute logical and stick with.